A Christmas Carol Takes Place During The Time Of The...

Scavenger Hunt #1. A Christmas Carol takes place during the time of the Victorian Era, the years of 1837-1901. We learn that the Cratchits live in a town called Camden Town during this time. Camden Town is located in an area of northwest London. Charles Dicken’s (the author of A Christmas Carol) family lived at 16 Bayham Street in Camden Town. #2. Tiny Tim had an illness which rendered his walking to be difficult without a crutch. The disease he was believed to have been diagnosed with, was a combination of rickets and tuberculosis. Rickets, also known as osteomalacia, is a disease that is extremely rare. There’s fewer than 1,000 US cases of it per year. Rickets is caused by a deficiency in Vitamin D, which creates a softening and weakening in the bones of children. Tuberculosis, also know as TB, on the other hand, is only just rare. There’s currently fewer than 200,000 cases of it per year. Tuberculosis is caused when a person with such disease coughs or sneezes, and it infects another person. This disease infects your lungs, which causes coughs (sometimes blood-tinged), and some pain when breathing. #3. A Union Workhouse is â€Å"a workhouse for the poore of this cittye and also a house of correction for the vagrant and disorderly people within this cittye† The people started out for breakfast with either gruel or porridge. As for mid-day dinner, this varied the most. The food for mid-day included bread and cheese,pudding (either rice-pudding or steamed suet pudding), meatShow MoreRelatedThe Life Of Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol1062 Words   |  5 PagesThe Victorian Period lasted from 1832 to 1901 under Queen Victoria’s reign. The culture revealed in this era was a time of rapid change, social inequality, industrialization, supernatural and religious beliefs, and was accurately reflected in the works of Charles Dickens, A Christmas Carol. Roles of men and women were strictly defined, as were economic statuses. The hustle and bustle of the streets led to illnesses. Working conditions were destitute and unsanitary. Children often had little to noRead More Hea rtless Capitalism Exposed in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens2289 Words   |  10 Pagessuffering endured by millions of working-class individuals. In A Christmas Carol(1843) by Charles Dickens, this theme of industrial suffering is illustrated through the historical and symbolic characterization of Bob Cratchit and his family, juxtaposed against Scrooges heartless capitalist ideals. Through this powerful theme of industrial suffering, Dickens permits the reader to visualize the suffering of the poor during the mid-Victorian period. Similarly, the theme of industrial suffering may be definedRead More Redemption in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens Essay2099 Words   |  9 PagesRedemption in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens Introduction Charles Dickens wrote A Christmas carol reflecting on the society that he live in the Victoria Era. During the reign of Queen Victoria Britain became one of the most Industrialised countries in European. From Britain Factories, mills, shipyards came products ranging from steam locomotives, to textiles and ship, while coal miners toiled deep below the ground to produce the coal needed to power Britain expanding IndustriesRead MoreScrooges Change in A Christmas Carol Essay1691 Words   |  7 PagesScrooges Change in A Christmas Carol Dickens combines a description of hardships faced by the poor with a heart-rending sentimental celebration of the Christmas season. The novel contains dramatic and comic element as well as a deep felt moral theme. In the beginning of the novel Ebenezer Scrooge is portrayed as a hardhearted and unsociable man. However at the end of the novel we see dramatic changes in him as a trio of ghostly visitations causes a complete changeRead MoreVictorian Ghost Stories Nearly Always Encompass Family1361 Words   |  6 PagesVictorian Ghost Stories nearly always encompass family life in some way or another. One reason for this may be to emphasize how abnormal a ghostly figure or hauntings really are within the story and get readers thinking, what would happen if that was happening to them? Making the stories feel more realistic to a Victorian readership. Family life within the era was held as one of the most important aspects of their day to day lives, therefore it is only natural for the theme of family to be presentRead MoreCharles Dickens: A Brief Biography Essay1315 Words   |  6 PagesCharles Dickens blended the Romanticism era, the Industrial age, and the Victorian era into unforgettable novels that still had the whimsical, imaginative part of life. Ruth conceded, â€Å" Dickens increasingly saw the need for finding and nurturing the imaginative core of life that can prevail even in the mi ddle of the modern industrial city (Glancy 17).† Charles used his own experiences and imagination to evoke stories that had an immense impact in the Victorian era, and later years to come. From his underprivilegedRead MoreCharles Dickens Writing Career1486 Words   |  6 PagesDuring Dickens’ writing career, he transcribed the cherished classic novels that began Dickens s fictional achievement that began with the 1836 sequential journal of The Pickwick Papers. Within a few years, he had become a worldwide celebrity for his novels. He also edited a weekly journal for 20 years. Dickens had written fifteen novels, five novellas, a multitude of short stories, and non-fiction articles. Dickens’ became very outspoken and lectured extensively, as he was also a remorseless letterRead More Analysis of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens Essays3690 Words   |  15 PagesAnalysis of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol is a novel written by Charles Dickens (1812-1870) during the Victorian age, an era that took its name from Queen Victoria, England titular ruler from 1819-1901. Under Queen Victoria’s rule, London reigned the worlds dominate city country and the country’s incomparable center of commerce, culture and government. At this time London’s industrial age contributed to a large share of the manpower and capital that brought theRead MoreVictorian Novel9605 Words   |  39 PagesTHE VICTORIAN NOVEL SPIS TREÃ…Å¡CI INTRODUCTION 1 I THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL 2 II KEY AUTHORS 3 III KEY TEXTS 3 IV TOPICS 3 INTRODUCTION Many associate the word â€Å"Victorian† with images of over-dressed ladies and snooty gentlemen gathered in reading rooms. The idea of â€Å"manners† does sum up the social climate of middle-class England in the nineteenth century. However, if there is one transcending aspect to Victorian England life and society, that aspect is change. Nearly every institution of societyRead MoreIndustrial Revolution in Victorian England3817 Words   |  16 PagesThe Industrial Revolution in Victorian England was a period of time in history when new inventions and technology changed the way people lived and worked. It impacted how they communicated, the way products were manufactured, and created new forms of cheaper and faster transportation. Innovations resulted in changes that were previously unheard of. The invention of the steam engine revolutionized the way people and things were transported. Manufacturers were able to ship their goods more quickly

Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms Free Essays

Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 8: Search or seizure Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure. The first part of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms that we choose for our project is section 8: Search and Seizure. This section guarantees that everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search and seizure. We will write a custom essay sample on Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are two parts to this section, one being unreasonable search and the other being unreasonable seizure. Unreasonable search is when your property, belongings, body, is searched without a warrant or without a probable reasoning to believe that the person would need to be searched. Unreasonable seizure is different; it implies that a person’s belongings have been taken from them by a public authority without the persons consent. Many government activities fall under this law, in all the law helps to secure people’s rights to privacy and it keeps government officials from abusing their power. Many may wonder why search and seizure are under the same section. The reason why they are is because they often fall hand and hand. Seizure often only occurs following a search, and searches only occur for the reasoning of wanting to seizure the person’s illegal belongings. There are many cases of unreasonable search and seizures which exist. For example, if government officials were to go into a man’s house, whom they suspected of dealing Mariana, but didn’t have a good reason to believe so or a warrant, and had taken his illegal Mariana plants then that would be an example of unreasonable search and seizure. Another example of unreasonable search and seizure would be if police officers were to inspect a person’s car at a traffic stop and take belonging inside because they believe they were illegal possessions; this is unreasonable search and seizure because they did not have a good reason to search. Many argue about this right of protection against unreasonable search and seizure because the possessions, weather found reasonably or not, are illegal. Some think that it is the governments right to search belongings of its citizens. An example of this opposition to the rights of Canadians currently occurring in Canada is Bill C-30. Bill C-30 would force Internet Service Providers to give Government Officials your name, address, IP address and a lot of other personal information, without a warrant. With all this information, the government would be empowered with the ability to monitor every action that you make online and use it to catch any illegal activity. This is a complete compromise to the rights of Canadians to protection against unreasonable search and seizure. How to cite Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Essay examples

Gun Control Annotated Bibliography Essay Example For Students

Gun Control Annotated Bibliography Essay Presently in our nation, a controversy is shelling around the issue of gun control. Civilian ownership of firearms has for more than two hundred years been the very cornerstone upon which the liberty of the public has been supported. The very reason that Americans have never suffered a tyranny on the scale of Nazi-Germany has been due to the proliferation of firearms in the hands of the general public. The Second Amendment to the Bill of rights of the United States Constitution states A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. In order to understand that right, the modern reader must understand the semantics of the eighteenth century. The term Well Regulated meant well trained according to James Madison, the principle author of the Constitution. The term militia, according to the Militia Act of 1792, referred to all able-bodied male citizens. The meaning then of the Second Amendment i s made quite clear. It is meant to serve as a chain upon the government to prevent the infringement of government power upon the Civil Liberties of Americans. Further proof of this can be seen in a quote from George Madison. I ask, Sir, What is the Militia? It is the whole people, except for a few public officials. (George Madison, Three Elliot, Debates at 425-426). Richard Henry Lee, in his Additional Letters from the Federal Farmer of 1788 stated, A militia, when properly formed, are in fact the people themselves.and include all men capable of bearing arms.Title Ten section 331 of the U.S. code states The Militia of the United States consists of all able bodied men at least seventeen years of age.The founding fathers of the United States believed that government is a necessary evil. They wrote the Bill of Rights, as stated earlier, to serve as a chain, which would limit government power over its citizens. Civilian ownership of firearms would, in the founding fathers view, be the American Peoples liberty teeth. (George Washington). This is to say that, despite attempts by some hypothetical future government to impose a tyranny, the American people would be able to resist it without armed force. The same founding fathers had only thrown off the yoke of tyranny during the revolution. They knew full well the value of an armed citizenry in fighting off tyranny. The minutemen assembled at Lexington and Concord to prevent the Royal Fusiliers from seizing the munitions of the militia as General Gage had ordered (Order of General Gage, April 18,1775). Further proof of the original intent of the founding fathers can be seen in a quote from Thomas Jefferson. Experience hath shewn, that even under the best form of government those entrusted with power have, in time and by slow operations, perverted it into tyranny. (Thomas Jefferson, Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge-1788). George Washington stated, government is not reason; it is not eloquence, it is f orce! Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a feraful master. In this quote, Washington summarized the mistrust that the founding fathers had in government. He realized that government could, like a fire, get out of control. Patrick Henry stated, Guard with jealous attention the public liberty. Suspect everyone who approached that jewel. Unfortunately, nothing will preserve it but downright force. Whenever you give up that force, you are ruined.The great object is that every man be armed. Everyone who is able might have a gun.Advocates of gun control state that control of firearms would prevent crime. This statement is flawed. According to the Uniform Crime Reports of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the cities with the highest crime rates are also the cities with the strictest gun control laws. (F.B.I. Uniform Crime Reports, 1994). In Washington D.C., it is almost impossible for a civilian to own firearms, yet it is universally seen as the murder capital of the United States . Vermont, a state where civilians do not need a license to carry firearms, has the best crime rate in the nation. Since Texas recently liberalized its concealed carry laws, crime rates have dropped 8.5 percent. 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Moby Dick Essays (699 words) - Moby-Dick, Captain Ahab, Ishmael

Moby Dick MEN GONE MAD Peoples dreams can make them insane. One person can be entirely focused on a particular event that the event soon begins to take over their life and influence others. Captain Ahabs intent is finding and killing Moby Dick, the whale that maimed and disfigured him years ago. His obsession with this whale puts many others in danger, such as Ishmael, Starbuck, and himself. Captain Ahab uses his shipmates as bait for Moby Dick himself. The day the ship leaves the dock on a search for whales, the men are trapped in a world gone mad with no escape. Ishmael, Starbuck, and Captain Ahab are all trapped in an unfortunate tragedy. Before boarding the ship, Ishmael sees a person on the dock beside the whaling boat. This persons name is Elijah, coincidentally sharing the same name as the prophet. Elijah hints to Ishmael to turn back from this voyage while he still has time. Elijah states that Ahab shall smell land where there be none, Ahab shall go to his grave but will rise within one hour and beckon, and all save one will be destroyed. Ishmael disregards him and continues. When Ishmael is ready to board the ship, Elijah warns him again. This is a sign that something terrible will happen once aboard the ship and everything and everyone will be traumatized. If only Ishmael would know, he will soon be trapped in Ahabs crazy world. Performing a pagan ritual before the groggy crew, Captain Ahab swears the men to join him in hunting down the white whale Moby Dick and killing him to satisfy Ahabs desire for revenge. Starbuck is horrified, while the crazy ranting of their captain wildly inspires members of the ship. This is an evil voyage. I fear the wrath of God. Service to mankind that pleases God is not revenge.1 Greatly fearing what Ahab has in store in the world gone mad, Starbuck foresees tragedy. Nailing a doubloon to the main mast follows the crazy ranting and Ahab says, Whosoever of ye raises me a white-headed whale with a wrinkled brow and a crooked jaw, he shall have this gold ounce, my boys!2 Starbuck tells Ahab that he came to hunt whales, not his commanders vengeance. As the savage harpooners drink, Death to Moby Dick! Starbuck mutters, God help me!keep us all!3 Starbuck is well aware that Ahab will soon place all the men in immediate danger. Spending most of his time on deck and only seldom descending into the cabin, Ahab appears to be a sympathetic character in some aspects. During the night watches, old Ahab is on deck, pacing with his artificial leg. Ahab has been in search for Moby Dick before but Moby Dick escaped the loony captain. Ahab has been trapped in a world gone mad for an extremely long time. Since the day he was unable to catch the feared Moby Dick, his life was never the same. Ahab himself is trapped in madness and states, May God damn us all if we do not hunt Moby Dick to his death!4 Starbuck sees Captain Ahabs whale map and disagrees. Ahab defined he distinctly knew what he was doing, Dumb brute blasphemykills and mutilate out race. I would strike the sun if it offended me,5 and he would not let Moby Dick get away this time no matter what the circumstance. Ahab was well aware of the trapped world he was inflicting on the shipmates but was only out for one thing; his fanatical self. Therefore, the innocent men are trapped in a world gone mad the very day the ship leaves the dock. Ishmael, Starbuck, and Captain Ahab are all trapped in a world of tragedy. These men were trapped by the madness of Captain Ahab. It was indeed their freewill to board the ship, but when they boarded they were unknowing of Ahabs lunacy and hatred for Moby Dick. Peoples dreams can indeed make them ballistic and Ahab was one of those people. English Essays

How the Meanings of Words Change

How the Meanings of Words Change Stick around long enough and youll notice that language changes- whether you like it or not. Consider this recent report from columnist Martha Gill on the redefinition of the word literally: Its happened. Literally the most misused word in the language has officially changed definition. Now as well as meaning in a literal manner or sense; exactly: the driver took it literally when asked to go straight over the traffic circle, various dictionaries have added its other more recent usage. As Google puts it, literally can be used to acknowledge that something is not literally true but is used for emphasis or to express strong feeling. . . .Literally, you see, in its development from knock-kneed, single-purpose utterance, to swan-like dual-purpose term, has reached that awkward stage. It is neither one nor the other, and it cant do anything right.(Martha Gill, Have We Literally Broken the English Language? The Guardian [UK], August 13, 2013) Changes in word meanings (a process called semantic shift) happen for various reasons and in various ways. Four common types of change are broadening, narrowing, amelioration, and pejoration. (For more detailed discussions of these processes, click on the highlighted terms.) BroadeningAlso known as generalization or extension, broadening is the process by which a words meaning becomes more inclusive than an earlier meaning. In Old English, for instance, the word dog referred to just one particular breed, and thing meant a public assembly. In contemporary English, of course, dog can refer to many different breeds, and thing can refer to, well, anything.NarrowingThe opposite of broadening is narrowing (also called specialization or restriction), a type of semantic change in which a words meaning becomes less inclusive. For example, in Middle English, deer could refer to any animal, and girl could mean a young person of either sex. Today, those words have more specific meanings.AmeliorationAmelioration refers to the upgrading or rise in status of a words meaning. For example, meticulous once meant fearful or timid, and sensitive meant simply capable of using ones senses.PejorationMore common than amelioration is the downgrading or depreciation of a words me aning, a process called pejoration. The adjective silly, for instance, once meant blessed or innocent, officious meant hard working, and aggravate meant to increase the weight of something. Whats worth keeping in mind is that meanings dont change over night. Different meanings  of the same word often overlap, and new meanings can co-exist with older meanings for centuries. In linguistic terms, polysemy is the rule, not the exception. Words are by nature incurably fuzzy, says linguist Jean Aitchison in the book Language Change: Progress Or Decay. In  recent years, the adverb literally has become exceptionally fuzzy. In fact, it has slipped into the rare category of Janus words, joining terms like sanction, bolt, and fix that contain opposite or contradictory meanings. Martha Gill concludes that theres not much we can do about literally. The awkward stage that its going through may last for quite some time. It is a moot word, she says. We just have to leave it up in its bedroom for a while until it grows up a bit. More About Language Change The Endless Decline of the English LanguageThe Great Vowel ShiftInconceivable!: 5 Words That May Not Mean What You Think They MeanKey Dates in the History of the English LanguageSix Common Myths About LanguageSemantic Change and the Etymological Fallacy

Advertising & Alcohol Products Essay Example for Free

Advertising & Alcohol Products Essay ? People’s life are built and protected by both us and society. We make our life happiness by enjoy as much as possible qualified products and society which is represented by government ensured the life quality by regulation requesting the obligation from all people towards product’s usage. Nevertheless, in some cases, government has to control and put the enforcement on consumer even if people like to use that product. Alcohol can be seen as a very popular example. People feel excited when use it, but, what will happen if the alcohol consumption increases year by year. As cited by Hall in his research this year, there was 25% increase in liver deaths which is caused by alcohol in last ten years. Not only alcohol beverages but alcohol advertising is interesting as well in attracting people. Therefore, alcohol advertising is now controlled strictly to prevent its bad impact. Government is allowed and able to do this for a better life to UK people. Binge-drinking can be listed as a trouble for middle-aged, middle-class and out-of-control youth in UK. It is worth noting that UK people are one of groups consuming alcohol most in Europe (British Medical Association, 2009). Since, UK government has to consider and find solution for this problem. It can be known that the effect of alcohol is similar to drug as well as tobacco although it depends on the quantities of usage. However, according to BMA board of science, it can be denied that not only drinker but also their relatives are affected by harmful consequences from alcohol such as contributory factor and violence at home. At first, advertising is same as other marketing tools with the aim to persuade people use product as much as possible. In the situation of alcohol, Advertisement increases consumer’s conceptions about alcohol which can promote them buy more. The journal of British Medical Association in 2009 cited the research conducted by Anderson and other researcher s that â€Å"alcohol marketing and promotion relate to the likelihood that adolescents will begin to use alcohol and drink more if they are already using alcohol†. Jernigan (2010) suggested that a mix of unmeasured activities relating to cultural, religious and regulatory context is used by alcohol companies. Advertising approach consumer, especially the Youth in many ways: marketing on Television, newspaper, sponsorship for sports, music, and cinema. The image of alcohol impresses people day by day encouraging them use it naturally. As a result, these activities impacts making decision of the youth in alcohol purchasing because culture, religion and regulation contribute strongly to the growth process of young people. Moreover, The high rate of alcohol beverages advertising’s appearance in public encourage people use it regularly for entertainment and daily usage which will result in bad effect on people life and society. This present can make people see wine, beer as a daily product. The greater availability of alcohol advertising is the reason why people under 23 years old continue to raise their drinking behavior (Jernigan, 2010). The high alcohol consumption of much means their health will have problem as well as the ability of causing violence or crime can be increased in society. Therefore, alcohol advertising should be limited like tobacco so that people will realize that the former also has bad effects as the latter. Although alcohol is still a product and beverage companies have right to advertise, this is sensitive one so that government should control for a safety of people life. The limitation of alcohol advertising will help government protect people’s health and social security. There will be no more crime which is relevant to alcohol. The health of people will be ensured. Let’s take Denmark as an example, this country only accepted broadcast advertising on low alcohol-content products and the rates of alcohol intoxication was reported highest rates at that time among European countries (International Center for Alcohol Policies) Wilby (2008) proposed that people are heavily impacted by advertising due to they are freely to accept information provided by other agents. Therefore, governments should be allowed to control advertising and able to manage the advertising of alcohol beverages companies by using advertising regulation, sign agreement with alcohol beverage companies and advertising agency or control newspaper and broadcasting agencies. He also suggested that governments can put enforcement on the advertising of cars, alcohol, junk food and other potentially dangerous products as the same way they used to work towards tobacco advertising. For example, as established in Advertising Standard Authority, in UK, â€Å"alcohol marketing is required that ads not link alcohol with sex, social success, youth culture or juvenile behavior.† (Hall, 2012) Enjoy the life as well as using entertaining product freely is demand of all most every people. On the other hand, alcohol beverage companies are also absolutely right when they want to provide as much as possible good alcoholic beverages for their consumer. Nevertheless, it is necessary to have a third party which is governments of countries in general and U. K government to put alcohol advertising under the control. They can set regulation and request that alcohol companies follow it strictly. Advertising & Alcohol Products. (2017, Jan 06).

Principles of Detail Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Principles of Detail Design - Essay Example Clements et al differentiate architectural design from detailed design in a uniquely interesting way. He alluded that architecture could be defined as a form of design yet the reverse was not possible. The interpretation is that design is not within the realms of architecture since the end of any masterpiece can be manipulative. There is a close relation between detailed design, architecture and construction. From this, designers aiming for success in detailed design are obligated to have or obtain full understanding of the requirements and architecture of the system. Proficiency in particular design strategies such as object-oriented, programming languages, and methods and processes for software quality control becomes a requirement. Detailed design acts as a bridge between design and code in the same way that architecture provides a link between requirements and design. When it comes to implementation, it can be debated that most problem solving activities occur in the detailed des ign phase. This can be demonstrated in the case where a formal process is followed, and the requirements are met by the detailed design and architecture. In numerous real-world applications, intricate problem solving is deferred by the architectural design activity to the detailed design, predominantly through abstraction. In some instances, specifying requirements is also submitted to detailed design. In view of these reasons, detailed design has to assume the role of gatekeeper to ensure that the specification and design of the system are sufficiently completed even before construction begins. This can be particularly hard for large-scale systems built from scratch devoid of experience with the development of systems that are alike. Tasks such as understanding the requirements and architecture, documenting software design, evaluating detailed designs, monitoring and controlling implementation, and creating detailed designs, become major factors in implementing detailed design acti vity. In contrast to software architecture, where the comprehensive set of conditions are assessed and well understood, detailed design activity calls for designers to focus on the requirements assigned to their explicit components. After understanding the architecture and requirements for allocated components, is when the detailed design of software modules can begin. The components of detailed design include both behavioral and structural designs. This is demonstrated by the focus on interface design (which includes internal interface design and external interface design), graphical user interface design-which could be an extension of the designs started during architecture, and internal component design (both structural and behavioral), and data design. The Open-Closed principle (OCP) is a crucial principle for creating recyclable and adjustable systems that advance gracefully with time. The key idea behind the OCP is that working code should remain untouched and any new addition s should come as extensions of the original work. This does not mean that designs modification cannot occur; it means they should be done by incorporating new code

Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research - Essay Example ............8 6 Methodology....................................................9 7 Analysis...........................................................10 8 References.......................................................12 1. Introduction The main aim of this research is to provide important marketing data to the client which is a company seeking to introduce a new range of ready to eat nutritious meals for fixed budget customers. The client company is planning to launch nutritious food products in United Kingdom market with the students as the main target customer of the product. This nutritious food product features a variety of read to serve meals at an affordable price. Beaver’s Corn Flakes are targeted towards the student population of UK and it is a substituent for the junk food preferred because of low cost. The client is planning to conduct a research for understanding the eating habits of the specific target consumers of their product. On behalf of the client, a resea rch agency is employed to carry out all the necessary research. There are various approaches followed by the marketing company to test the launch methods that have to be adopted for launching the product in UK market. This research will help the client company in understanding the real market conditions and help them in designing an effective strategy for the launch of product. This report is prepared with the purpose of highlighting the methods that are used in research process and the importance of every single method with relevant output for the client. There will be detailed explanation for the research methods used and reason behind using those particular methods for the research. 2. Research Objectives This main purpose of this research is to understand the UK market and the food habits of the potential customers. The research is divided into different stages including consumer research, expert advice from nutrition and diet experts in UK and conducting online research campaig n for the product. The research agency will focus in finding the right methods for promoting Beaver’s Corn Flakes and getting the feedback from the targeted audience. The main objective of conducting this research is to provide important insights of the research and useful data to the client that will guide in marketing and production strategies of the company. One of the most important parts of the research is consumer participation and the inputs from direct targeted customers. The feedback from customers will be taken in form of short surveys and the satisfaction level of the customer from Beaver’s corn flakes and other range of products. It will allow the client to understand the customer’s perspective towards the product and estimate of number of customers that are willing to use this product. Some of the important results obtained from research are: a) Customer awareness of Beaver’s corn flakes product (Including data like age, socio-economic status , sex and location of customer) b) What are the possible challenges in introducing Beaver’s corn flakes and food products in UK market? c) What is the customer satisfaction level and feedback for Beaver’s Corn Flakes? d) What percentage of UK customers are willing to try this new range of nutritious food products from Kellogg’s? 3. Terms of Reference The main aim of the research is to provide information to the client that will help the company in developing a consumer base in UK market for their upcoming nutritious range of food products served as

Scarlet Letter, Ethan from, Lesson Before Dying Essay Example for Free

Scarlet Letter, Ethan from, Lesson Before Dying Essay Many people try to escape the prison that suppresses them, but fail to because of their moral obligations to themselves and others. Edith Whartons Ethan Frome, Ernest J. Gaines A Lesson Before Dying and Nathaniel Hawthornes Scarlet Letter, portray the struggles one acquires through their own conduct. Ethan in Ethan Frome, Grant in A Lesson Before Dying and Hester in Scarlet Letter each try to elude their life dilemmas, but are hindered due to their obligations. Ethan is obligated to his wife though he loves Mattie, while Grant is obligated to his society, but wants to leave. Hester accepts her punishment but wants to be within society though they shunned her. Wharton, Gaines and Hawthorne all use various language devices to accentuate the gain of dignity and respect through moral struggle. In Ethan Frome, Wharton uses symbols and archetypes to create Ethans anguish to his moral obligation to his wife Zeena which keeps him from his true love, Mattie. His moral prison is established with the headstone of another Ethan Frome and his wife that bores that they dwelled together in peace for fifty years, which interests Ethan (Frome 66). Later on, his own neighbors dont see theres much difference between the Fromes up at the farm and the Fromes down in the graveyard (Frome 140). The symbol of the Fromes down in the graveyard establishes Ethans similarities to the dead illustrating his moral obligation to Zeena for eternity (Frome 140). When Ethan feels Zeenas presence, coincidently Zeenas grey cat [elongates] its body in the direction of the milk-jug, which stood between Ethan and Mattie (Frome 69). The cat then tries an unobserved retreat and [backs] into the red pickle-dish, which [falls] on the floor with a crash (Frome 69). The color archetypes of ? red establish Ethan and Matties love while the ? grey cat establishes Zeena who breaks their love, the dish. Ethan is always besieged by Zeena even when lacking her presence. He wants to stay with Mattie yet his obligation to his wife thwarts him from her. When Ethan and Mattie finally reach the point by his mill they descended [and] the darkness descended with them, dropping down like a black veil (Frome 125). The darkness symbolizes Ethans obligation and his moral duty to his wife (Frome 125). He cannot leave her though he scorns her because it is his morally obliged to reside by her side. Ethan who concludes to stay with the crippled and the sick gains respect out of the town and for himself by struggling with his obligation. Similar to Wharton, Gaines uses symbols and repetition to illustrate that to escape the moral prison, is to fight back and win the battle. Gaines language devices connect Grants obligation to Jefferson and to society. Grants talk with Matthew Antoine, while he was still in college, proves that a person who does not run will still be cold. [hell] always be cold (Gaines 64). The use of the symbol cold represents the fact that people who do not run will always be trapped with the cold brutality of the south (Gaines 64). When the educated do not run at the right time, they will be frozen in the south and will therefore be obliged to stay and help the rest of the frozen people. While trying to make Jefferson understand life, Grant discloses that all of us on this earth, [are] a piece of drifting wood, until we? each one of us, individually? decide to become something else. I am still that piece of drifting wood? (Gaines 193). By perceiving Grant is as a piece of drifting wood (Gaines 193). Gaines implies that Grant has still not run because he is like everyone else who is morally obligated to help one another in this disdainful society. Grant is very confounded that he seeks help from an uneducated man and tells him that [he needs him]. [He needs him] much more than [he] could ever need [Grant]. [he needs] to know what to do with [his] life (Gaines 193). The repetition of [he needs] emphasizes that Grant does not know how to complete his life. He is confined in his prison between social freedom and the freedom of others. Corresponding to Wharton and Gaines, Hawthorne uses repetition and metaphors to establish that Hester struggles to accept her consequences which she believes are just and return to a society where no one trusts her. Hester imprisons herself because she knows that [here]?  had been the scene of her guilt, and here should be the scene of her earthly punishment (Hawthorne 74). The repetition of here further emphasizes that Hester knows she deserves her punishment. Yet she does not want to live in solitude. She is morally obliged to stay away from society though she wants to go. Furthermore, Hester describes her sin, her ignominy, [as] the roots which she had struck into the soil, that the [chains] that [bind] her here [are] of iron links, and galling to her inmost soul, but [can] never be broken (Hawthorne 74). The use of metaphors illustrates that Hester morally imprisoned herself; therefore it is her moral obligation to correct herself. But she is also chained by society who has shunned her, yet it is also her duty to break the chains. But still she is a moral prisoner because she has to correct herself, but the chains can never be broken (Hawthorne 74). All Hesters attempts to rid herself of shame will only further remind her of the sin she committed. By trying to break the chains, Hester is able to gain some respect from the town knowing that she tried to redeem herself of her sin. Many people try to escape from their moral prison and yet some just accept their fate. The three novels deal with the inner conflict of each character of bringing the moral and immoral solution to their problems. The use of literary devices emphasizes the true meaning of ones struggle. It paints a realistic art show for everyone to interpret in their own way. Either one can fight the moral prison or they can accept it and try and move on with life. But to escape the imprisonment is to face the harsh reality of life.

A Mind Full, a World Shattered :: Personal Narrative Writing

A Mind Full, a World Shattered At the end of a long road one will look back and ponder the experiences that time has moved along the path. There is no doubt I am leaving high-school a different person and I doubt there are few ideas that I once held that have remained the same. At times I miss the simple lessons, the easy test, the mindless homework assignments. I wasn't sure what I expected in high-school, but I am leaving with a mind full, and at times, a world shattered. I'm not sure education meant much to me when I began this path. Perhaps it meant a little more when I had to work for the knowledge I chose to keep or dismiss. I have come to realize that high-school was no more than life lessons, ways to cope, how to deal with people, and a way to test my boundaries mentally and emotionally. It took me awhile to realize that those test given prove nothing, those papers written in structured form prove little else than the thesis statement on the paper topic demanded by teachers. As I look back I can say I will take this with me: Understanding who I am is understanding what I have learned, what I have failed at, what I have questioned, and what I believe. I have learned to distrust words but adore their depth. I have learned to follow directions and to break the rules. I have learned that teachers are just people, with their own minds and beliefs that, in some way, have infiltrated the class room and what I have been taught. At times this has been a tremendous gift, other times a great tragedy. I have learned that a brilliant person is not one who can memorize facts or maintain a high GPA. I have learned grades do not reflect who I am and my abilities. Grades are only maintained to because people are afraid to just "be" and just "learn." I have realized that grades and competition may be the system used to induce hard work and dedication, but I also know that there are better ways because the system fails on a moment to moment basis. I have realized the most important people of this world are not those walking around with the most money or graduating from the best high-schools.

Determination of Interest Rates Essay

Interest rates are the payments one makes to another as the cost of borrowing funds. Interest rates should be equal to different borrowers under the same prevailing economic conditions. Various factors come into play to determine the interest rate to be paid by a borrower. This paper explores the factors used in determining the prevailing interest rates. Among the factors used to determine interest rates are credit quality, local and world economic and political conditions (Lando 143). In addition, the demand and supply of funds also determine the interest rates set on borrowings. The borrower always has a feeling that the interests charged are the best deal and that better returns will accrue from the funds borrowed. In the same manner, the lender should also feel the interest charged would have the best returns. Credit quality refers to the capability of investors to pay under a given economic situation. Interest rates are charged in direct proportionality to credit quality (Singleton et al 56). Big businesses and government can easily pay for the loans borrowed plus the interests charged. An investor may also compare the opportunity cost of money over a given period. The economic condition may be in a state of either inflation or deflation, forcing the lender to consider the opportunity cost of funds over a given period. An increase in inflation rate results in an increased rate since the expected inflation rate is also accounted for in the rates set (Sullivan et al 505-506). For instance, if in a situation without inflation, the interest rate is 4%, then this becomes 7% if the inflation rate is 3%. The declining value of collateral due to inflation may affect a borrower’s ability to pay. This will increase the risks associated with the repayment ability of the borrower. The higher risks are therefore included in the interest rate charged. Political subsidies by governments also influence interest rates. Governments can lower the interest rates on borrowers by subsidizing certain loans such as college student loans, public housing loans, and other public work program loans. Conclusion Interest rates, the excess on a borrowed money paid to the lender by the borrower, is determined by many factors. The main factor is the prevailing economic conditions. These could be inflation or deflation. The government may also subsidize certain type of borrowers to motivate them to borrow. The ability of the borrower to pay, the credit quality, is also a vital determinant of interest rates.

Food Safety Act Essay

Food safety regulations places an obligation on food business operators to ensure that all their activities are carried out in a hygienic way and make it an offence to supply food which is unsafe or harmful to human health, this applies to all premises that provide food whether money is exchanged or not. The food safety team is responsible for ensuring that businesses comply with these requirement under the food safety act 1990 and food hygiene (England) regulations 2006 they deal with hygiene except at primary production (farms) where trading standards and other bodies have responsibility. Food safety The council sets the following standards for food. * Food businesses are registered. * Food is correctly labelled and described, and meets quality standards. *Manufactures and retailers of food are regularly inspected. * Restaurants and other food premises meet strict hygiene standards. * Food is safe to eat. The food safety team is responsible for the inspection of food retailers and providers in the borough; they ensure that the food hygiene and quality being made available in premises meets legal requirements. It is also responsible for ensuring food is correctly labelled and compositional standards are met. The cook in charge has to make sure all the fridges are set at the right temperature. All food that is cooked is set at the right temperature, is cooked to the right temperature before it is served. All dates are monitored regularly, only order what is needed. Documentation is filled in properly. The kitchen is kept clean. Gloves, hats and aprons are worn, hair tied back. Regular food and hygiene courses, all equipment is kept clean and stored in the correct place. Colour coded chopping boards are used. Inspectors can visit you at anytime to make sure you are doing your job to a high standard.

Aborigine-Invading Settler Relationship in Rabbit-Proof Fence

Aborigine-Invading Settler Relationship in Rabbit-Proof Fence Free Online Research Papers Philip Noyce’s film Rabbit-Proof Fence is a film about three Aboriginal girls named Molly Craig, Daisy Kadabil and Gracie Fields and it explores the lives of these girls coinciding with the Australian western society during the Stolen Generation period. The police of the white Australians captured the girls due to their mixed-blood status; half white, half Aboriginal. They were taken from their parents and were put into a settlement with other mixed bloods known as â€Å"half-castes†. The film also tells of their escape from the Moore River Settlement and their return to their families, except for Gracie. The film is based on a book entitled Follow the Rabbit-Proof Fence which is inspired by true events and is written by Doris Pilkington Garimara, the daughter of the protagonist Molly (â€Å"Rabbit-Proof Fence†). The film attempts to untangle many issues of Australian history. It explores the issues such as the relationship between the Aborigines and the invading-settlers, explains the reason why half-caste Aboriginals were taken from their families and what happened once they are captured. The ‘Stolen Generation’ consists of children of Australian Aboriginal descent who suffer the destruction of identity, family life and culture because they were removed from their families by the Australian and State government agencies under the Aborigines Act (â€Å"Bring them home†). It is documented that the removals occurred in the period between approximately 1869 and 1970s (Marten 229, Australian Museum 1-6, Read 1-34). This was caused because, by the mid-nineteenth century, white settlers had begun their encroachment of native Aboriginal lands, resulting in inevitable mixing of white and Aboriginal blood. The children of this union were known as â€Å"half-caste† and their growing presence is seen as a threat to civilized society by the Australian authorities (Stratton 70). Motives for the removal of the children from their families are heavily debated and include fears of miscegenation, child protection and a desire to attain white racial purity (Bates 243). In order to achieve the aforementioned motives, cultural imperialism and subjugation of the Aborigine will be discussed. First and foremost is cultural imperialism. British colonial rule relied on the perception that non-white people and non-Western cultures as inferior and needed the ‘advanced civilization’ offered by Western culture. The colonizers found it beneficial for children to adapt to Western society as they believed that the indigenous people lived ‘unhappy lives’ and the thought of them conforming to the ‘western lifestyle to be ideal’ (Klages 147-152, Stratton 70). Britain extended its national rule to countries and areas all over the world from the late seventeenth century to the middle of the twentieth century (â€Å"Colonialism†). The British formed British colonies and in most cases took over the administration of the government in order for British laws and customs to rule the people who lived half a world away from Britain itself. British colonial rule meant teaching the indigenous people about the superiority of Western practices through the setting up systems of police, courts and legislatures following British laws (Klages 147-152). It is also done by sending missionaries to convert natives to Christianity, establishing churches, setting up schools to teach British customs, and the English language to children and adults in order to make them more like British citizens. The Australian government itself stems from British colonial rule and thus followed the aforementioned things. When Molly, Daisy and Gracie were taken from their parents by the police, they were transported to Moore River Settlement, more than a thousand miles away from their families. When they are at the settlement, they were forced to speak English, abandon their traditional beliefs and culture, taught to adopt to western society and were brought up to believe in Christianity as apposed to their own belief (Rabbit-Proof Fence). The Moore River Settlement disconnected the children with their families and this prevented the children from finding their families or returning back to their homes. Children at the Moore River Settlement were also taught to believe that their past (traditions and origins) to be an ‘evil thing’ and persuaded them through the use of force to never revisit their original way of life and continue on living in western society. This is done in order to ‘protect the child’ by making them conform to western lifestyle. According to Mr. A.O. Neville, who is the Chief Protector of Aborigines, the half-caste children should be removed from their families for the fear of miscegenation. He states that there will be a ‘racial classification dilemma’ as the half-caste child could â€Å"allow a creation of an unwanted third race† and there will be a dispute on whether or not â€Å"the colors be encouraged to go back to the blacks† or â€Å"advance to the white status and be absorbed in the white population†. He further adds that half-caste children can be bred into ‘white people’ through after three generations of marriages with white people starting from the half-blood grandmother, leading to the quadroon daughter and the octoroon grandson as after â€Å"the third generation, no trace of origin is apparent†¦continuing infiltration of white blood†¦finally stamps out the black color†. This clearly shows the desire to attain white racial purity in which the Aboriginal is finally bred out. Second is subjugation of the Aborigine. The film the Rabbit-Proof Fence shows subjugation of the Aborigine through power and law. This can be seen through the use of characters, symbols and settings developed throughout the movie. The most powerful character is Mr. A.O. Neville, chief protector and legal guardian of every Aboriginal in Western Australia in the 1930s. He represents authority as throughout the entire movie, he is portrayed as having perfectly combed and waxed hair and is always seen in a suit which is in immaculate condition. This is combined with his power to control every Aborigine in the state: â€Å"Every Aborigine in this state comes under my control†, he said. He displays his authority by signing an order for the institutionalization of Molly, Daisy and Gracie and by his formal pattern of speech; â€Å"I’m authorizing their removal. They’re to be taken to Moore River as soon as possible†. Molly Craig’s character, on the other hand, shows the contrast to power and law. Molly’s hair is free and her clothing is simple to portray her carefree lifestyle without official rules. Molly’s speech is also informal and mostly made up of simple sentences; â€Å"Where your country? How far does rabbit fence go to?† When these two characters clash, we see the effects of power and law on the powerless Aborigine. From these two examples, it is clearly seen that the whites held the power to dominate the Aborigines because they held authority through law. Even when an aborigine acquires some power and law, as depicted in the character of Moodoo, he is still not powerful enough to go against the white oppressors. He can neither get himself or his daughter to totally abandon the Moore River Settlement. In addition, he also has to suffer with a lost of identity as he is not entirely accepted by the white or aboriginal communities because of his role as a tracker. Symbolism is another way to represent power and law. Mr. Neville’s stationary especially his pen and rubber stamp are powerful objects. They are the most powerful tool because they are used to authorize the removal of the three half-caste girls. It is also a tool to grant permission to marry, visit children and buy new shoes. The three aboriginal children were forced to fight the forces of the whites with their own set of powers without the help from the law. They have the power of culture, taught to them by their mother, Maude. They had learned native survival skills as part of their aboriginal education. Without their knowledge of tracking, hunting and survival in the bush, they would never have made it back to their home. These abilities were essential throughout their journey. This fundamental power of culture was an indigenous strength that allowed survival in a harsh land. It was also a strength that could be used in combat against their white oppressors. Settings are also used to represent power and law. There are two main settings are social setting and physical setting. The social setting consists of patriarch society versus matriarch society. The white oppressors controlled the society that they oppressed by following a ‘patriarch rule’. The individuals with the most power in society are men while women played a subordinate role. Men road horses, drove cars and enforced laws. Women became housewives, secretaries and servants. The Aborigines, on the contrary, controlled their society by following a ‘matriarch rule’. Women became the head of their family and the breadwinner. Men only became an insemination tool. It is also interesting to note that when these two types of social settings clash with one another, the physical power of the patriarchs together with their control of the law overpowers the matriarchs; Constable Riggs forcefully takes the three aboriginal girls from their mothers and grandmother while justifying his actions by saying â€Å"I’ve got the papers, Maude, there’s nothing you can do†. The physical setting too shows the portrayal of power and law. Molly’s home is where modern living and laws are not reinforced. Molly enjoys a free and happy lifestyle because of this. Warm colors found in can be seen through the lush vegetation and large landscape of her home to represent this. Alternatively, Mr. Neville’s office is the home of laws. His office is linear and the objects in the office are placed in an orderly fashion which reflects Mr. Neville’s way of life and the issue of power and law. Besides power and law, the role of education as well plays a role in subjugating the Aborigines. Most children at Moore River Settlement receive basic training to be domestic servants and farm laborers. Only fair-skinned children from the settlement will receive ‘higher education’ from Sister Kate because â€Å"they more clever than us, they can go to proper school†, according to Nina. This results in the children to be taken advantage off from the whites when they return to the society as they will become servants to them. A clear example is Mavis. She graduated from Moore River Settlement and she becomes the servant to a white couple and a sex slave to the couple’s husband. This proves that education is not a tool for social advancement but a regulatory tool for oppression. As a conclusion, the central idea that flows throughout the film is a lack of understanding in the colonizer-colonized relationship. As white colonists gradually occupied the lands of the indigenous people, the latter’s traditional nomadic way of life is seriously eroded. Derisively seen as a ‘stone-age’ race, the aborigines came to rely on handouts as the structure of their society collapsed. Since the settlers were superior in force, the indigenous people were thought of as lesser beings and they felt no remorse for mistreating, controlling and deciding how the indigenous people were supposed to live (Stratton 70, â€Å"Colonialism†). The acts of the Australian government as portrayed in the film can be equated to genocide. To say that the Australian’s western society was right for doing such an immoral offence towards a once prosperous and content civilization is foolish. Their policy was definitely aimed at ‘breeding out’ the Aborigi nality. Many Aboriginal people from the ‘stolen generation’ are psychologically damaged and continue to suffer the effects of destruction of their identity, family and culture. The ‘white’ powers despite their authority have been unable to bring a complete makeover to aboriginal Australia. The young girls made it home, but their victory did not close the education settlement that housed the ‘stolen generation’ of aboriginal children. Years later, as we learn from the film, Molly is once again abducted by the authorities. She retrod her steps while carrying her youngest child to return to her homeland. Her elder daughter was too heavy to carry and she never saw her again. This shows that neither set of forces has ultimately been successful; the white powers of cultural imperialism versus the aboriginal powers of cultural preservation. The struggle between the two powers still continues up till today. Australian Museum. Indigenous Australia: Family. 2004. 23 January 2009 Bates, Daisy. The Passing of the Aborigines: A Lifetime spent among the Natives of Australia. 1983. Project Gutenberg of Australia. 23 January 2009. Bring them home. 23 January 2009 â€Å"Colonialism†. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 2009. Encyclopaedia Britannica . 23 January 2009. Klages, M. Literary Theory: A Guide for the Perplexed. Great Britain: Continuum. 2006. Marten, J.A. Children and war. New York: NYU Press 2002. Rabit-Proof Fence. Dir. Philip Noyce. Perf. Evelyn Sampi, Laura Monaghan, Tianna Sansbury, Kenneth Branagh, David Gulpilil, Garry McDonald. Miramax 2002. DVD. Read, Peter. The Stolen Generations: The Removal of Aboriginal children in New South Wales 1883 to 1969. 1981. Department of Aboriginal Affairs (New South Wales government). 23 January 2009 Stratton, David. â€Å"Rabbit-Proof Fence (Motion Picture)† Film Television Literature Index 25 Feb. 2002: 70- . EBSCOhost. West Virginia University Library, Morgantown, WV. 23 January 2009. Research Papers on Aborigine-Invading Settler Relationship in Rabbit-Proof FenceWhere Wild and West MeetUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresBringing Democracy to Africa19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraCapital PunishmentQuebec and CanadaAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Assess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropePersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Essay

Insanity and Diminished Responsibility Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Insanity and Diminished Responsibility - Essay Example abnormality of the mind ( R v Byrne ); drug personality disorder (Celebici Trial); involuntary intoxication ( R v Galbraith) ; mental weakness and low intelligence ( Lord Dea's decision ) ; minority ( R v Raven ); physical deformities such as blindness and being a deaf-mute ( R v Pritchard). In the treatise "Partial Defences To Murder" more mitigating factors are added i.e. sufficient provocation by the offended party ( R v Smith ); immediate vindication of a grave offence to himself or his relatives (Table 7); Incomplete self-defence where there is no reasonable necessity of the means employed by the culprit (R v Martin); passion or obfuscation (Case 113); disease or injury (Note 17); jealousy, mercy killing, depression, relationship of victim to the accused (Table 7). The list goes on and on. Insanity is a plea or defence by which the accused at the time of the commission of the act, "was laboring under such a defect of reason, arising from a disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing or, if he did know it, that he did not know that what he was doing was wrong (The M'Naghten Rules). Insanity totally exempts the culprit from criminal liability unless he does it during a lucid interval. If so, he is wholly liable for the crime unless there are mitigating factors attending the crime. Diminished Respons... 2 Diminished Responsibility is defined as a plea or defence in which the accused at the moment of the commission of the crime suffers from some "form of mental unsoundness or mental aberration or weakness of mind", so much so that his "mind is so affected that responsibility is diminished from full responsibility to partial responsibility" ( HM Advocate v Savage). Comparison and Contrast 1. Both insanity and diminished responsibility are mental states. In insanity, there is a mental disorder or a mental disease which causes the deranged person to be deprived completely of reason, discernment or freedom of the will at the time of the commission of the crime. In insanity, there is an absence in the agent of crime of any of all the conditions that would make an act voluntary. On the other hand, in diminished responsibility, there is a mental debility or aberration of the mind or a temporary mental capacity or a temporary mental impairment (Scottish Law Commission 2). Here, there is some degree of reason, discernment or freedom of the will albeit such is beclouded and weakened by the presence of any of the mitigating factors hereinabove mentioned. 2. Insanity totally exempts the offender from criminal liability because the insane person is totally deprived , at the time of the performance of the crime, of discernment or reason or intelligence and is unable to distinguish between right or wrong. In diminished responsibility, as a rule, there is no exemption from criminal liability but there is instead a mitigation or extenuation of criminal responsibility

Pop and rock music history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pop and rock music history - Essay Example Indeed, Appleseed cast is one of the most creative musical bands in the world. According to the Herald News, the album is described as unique in that, each song on this album induces emotion. The bass work and drum nicely complement the loud and thick guitars to maintain the rhythm of the songs. These are accompanied by true and raw vocals by the experienced singers. Screams are also included to the rich set of instruments, though occasionally some singing is thrown in when suitable. The art work and production of the album is the best ever. As mentioned, the album is also made unique by the emotion created. This makes this album to stand out among the rest. It is inspirational, heartfelt and an emotional music album. In comparison to other bands, The Appleseed Cast has no non-versatile descriptive words, bland choruses and excessive use of the words agony and pain. In simple words, it is a poetry of the young emotions of harsh losses and true love. Appleseed Cast perfectly blend the songs between simple tunes, sad and an emotional flurry of drums and guitars. However, this sometimes happens within the same song. In the song Marigold & Patchwork the lead singer’s voice is rattling yet, perfectly quiet. At the same time the voice is becomes abrasive and can send chills down a person’s spine. On the other hand, the song untitled half, is comprised of almost perfect crescendo of bass, jackhammer drumming, duel guitars and sax. Interestingly, the song Ring Wars deserves time to really understand comprehend the music. It is like Nirvana meets Radio Head. In this song, the lead singer Chris shows in and out voice that mumbles lyrics and also screeches. Their melodies are nice even though not pop. It has soothing instants where singing stops for about 2 minutes into the song. The drum work is amazing as heard the in the last instrumental track. Another song in the album is Marigold & Patchwork. This is an all-time amazing song. It has an

Inclusion of the Physically Disabled in Mainstream Schools Essay

Inclusion of the Physically Disabled in Mainstream Schools - Essay Example Significant attempts to transform mainstream/state schools and make them more inclusive to the physically disabled students have been made in UK. However, a lot requires to be done to make the mainstream schools completely accommodating to the disabled students. This paper focuses on the measures that mainstream schools in United Kingdom have taken to be more inclusive and meet the needs of the physically disabled. Additionally, the paper will focus on how successful or unsuccessful these measures have been in different institutions and whether the success depends on the resources that the schools have to their disposal. In the recent past, the UK government has dedicated itself to ensuring that all children get equal access to quality education irrespective of their diversity. However, the governments’ objective has not been fully successful. Physically disabled children are one of the groups of people that have been discriminated against in most societies. Investigations the UK education department show that most mainstream schools lacked devices to support disabled student particularly before introduction of the inclusion program. According to the medical model, most people view disability to be identical to disability or as a problem. However, other theories have been developed to counteract this notion. These theories include the post-social, affirmative, and the social models. These theories posit that impairment is not synonymous to disability. They argue that case of disability found amongst the physically challenged persons result since disabled are often not provided with the appropriate environment to reveal they potential. This can be demonstrated by simple aspects such as lack of elevators in most state school, which makes it almost impossible for children using wheelchairs to attend such schools. These contemporary models have greatly contributed to the changes in mainstream school in London to make them more accommodative for the disabled students. Accommodation of the disabled in mainstream schools is in line with the social model, which argues that segregating of the impaired people is irreverent and a sign of oppression. Most efforts made have been to improve the schools and accommodate individuals with impairments such as blindness, deafness, or other impairments that make it impossible for individuals to use the same facilities with normal individuals. Post-social modelists argue that segregation make the persons with impairments pity themselves. The social and post-social models are among the models that have greatly influence the development of inclusion programs in UK (Clough and Corbett 5-11). In ensuring that the physically disabled access quality education, the learning environment must be altered. This is more important in cases where the disability requires the students to make use of supportive devices such as wheelchairs (Department for Education and Skills Web; Norwich 16-28). Importance of the Inclus ion Program Ensuring that persons with disability are not excluded from mainstream education has been the most significant move in guaranteeing equal opportunities for all. There are a several reasons why inclusion of the physically disabled in the mainstream schools is important in UK. One of the reasons is because education is considered crucial in

Summary of chapter 10 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summary of chapter 10 - Essay Example This is unlike the case in dividends on stock; thus, stockholders are less likely to acquire financial returns as compared to bondholders (Kelly & McGowen 135). Trading securities markets are of two types; primary and secondary markets. Primary securities market refers to when corporations gain more financial capital by selling new securities (Kelly & McGowen 137). On the other hand, secondary securities market trades the previous securities to gain financial capital. Issuing of securities in the primary market occurs in two methods, that is, through a public offering or private placements. Private placements are faster, easier and cheaper as compared to a public offering (Kelly & McGowen 138). In the secondary market, the firms that issue bonds and stock do not receive additional finance when they trade their securities. However, an advantage to the firm is that, at secondary market price, of their stock reflects the investor opinion about the firm’s management (Kelly & McGowen 138). Investors need to keep track on the performance of securities in the market. A major way is to track stock indices. These include; Dow Jones Industrial average, Standard and Poor’s 500 and the NASDAQ Composite Index. These indices help to update the investor and guide him or her in the way of investing (Kelly & McGowen

The Evolution Of English Through Time English Language Essay

The Evolution Of English Through Time English Language Essay In the beginning, life was simple and life forms were non-complex. Communication between these life forms was also simple, spoken communication and languages did not exist. As life evolved, and Homo sapiens began roaming the Earth, the need for spoken communication became necessary and languages were born. Join me in an exploration of how the English language came to be, and how it has evolved over time. . The Roman Empire controlled England for centuries; however, by the early 400s the Irish, Britons, and Anglo Saxons invaded and began settling England for themselves. Though each of these tribes had their own language, their dialects were close enough for them to understand each other. The language that developed from this inter-twining of tribes became known as Anglo-Saxon or Old English. Later, during the 800s, with the arrival of the Vikings, two things happened to this Old English language. The first was that many Old Norse words were added, and the second, was the complex conjugations began to decline as people disagreed about which ones to use. The alphabet of the Old English language did not use the letters k, q, v, x or z, and the pronunciations of some of the letters changed depending upon what letters were near them. Vowels were easy with the short vowels a, e, i, o being pronounced pretty much the same, as they are today, the exception was the vowel u, and its pronunciati on was more like the pronunciation of the word book today. The long vowels were often marked with an accent mark and have a completely different pronunciation from the long vowels sounds we recognize today. Along with short and long vowels, the Old English language included three double vowels, each with short and long versions. In 1066, the French-Normans under the rule of William the Conqueror invaded England bringing political change and their French-Norse language, which they made the official language of the monarchy and elite. However, due to the daily need to communicate with the English peasant class, the common language became English. Prior to the Norman invasion, Latin had only a minor influence on the English language, but afterwards there was an influx of Anglo-Norman words added to the English language. There was a split between original Germanic words used by the common class and the Norman words used by the elite for everyday items. Beef and cow are an example of the split in words used by the elite versus the peasants, as beef was often eaten by the elite, while cows were tended by the peasants. Beef has its roots in Anglo-Norman while cow comes from Germanic roots. Many legal terms are also derived from Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. Sometimes, French words replaced Old English words completely, while other times French and Old English combined creating new words. It is important to understand that Middle English was not the only language spoken during this period in England; Scots, Cornish and Welsh were also spoken and differ from Middle English. This accounts for the significant differences in dialects from each of the above areas versus the dialect spoken in London. Sometime in the 12th century, the French Influence in England began to fade and a number of writers began writing in the vernacular language rather than French, Latin or Greek. The 14th century produced the most notable vernacular writer of the time, Geoffrey Chaucer the author of The Canterbury Tales. Since then, the English language has been absorbing vocabulary from many languages around the world. English steadily adds the creation of new words and new uses for old words by the sub-cultures of the English-speaking world. Until the 16th century, French remained to be the literary language and Latin the scholarly language of Europe. The evolution of Middle English into Early Modern English began during the Renaissance in the 16th century when a renewed interest in education sparked across England and most of Europe. As a result of the growing interest in the writings of antiquity many Latin and Greek words were introduced into the English language. Along with the introduction of new words into the English language a shift of vowels, changes to some consonants and grammar were also part of the evolution of English at this time. As more literary works began to be written, the need for the stabilizing the spelling of words became important. One of the earliest attempts at stabilizing the spelling of words came in 1582 with the book Elementarie, by Richard Mulcaster. Some of the principles he established include the removal of all unnecessary letters, adding letters to words to indicate correct pronunciati on and the use of a final silent e to mark long vowels distinguishing them from short vowels. Mulcaster also established other principles, but these three are the most significant. Many spelling concepts within the English language exist simply because some Norman scribe first spelled an English word using the phonetic principles of his own native language. From the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, the spelling conventions for many words in the English language have been determined by referring to their original forms as a guide; resulting in an unusual combination of old and modern practices. Many of the spellings, including the silent letters of words that we use today were established in the first printed books, and have remained that way because it would have been unfeasible to change printed texts after distribution. By the 17th century, it became abundantly clear that assistance was required for writers to gain a clear understanding of the meanings of words and thei r spelling. One of the first books to offer such assistance was A Table Alphabeticall, published in 1604 by Robert Cawdrey. It was intended to only define difficult and unusual words in the English language that were derived from the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, or French languages. This book contained approximately 2500 words with an interpretation of the meaning. The first book to actually call itself a dictionary though, was The English Dictionarie; published in 1623 by Henry Cockeram. This book was a two part work claiming to be able to not only help readers with the understanding of the difficult to understand writings of some authors, but also to attain speedily an elegant perfection of the English tongue in reading, writing and speaking. The first part of Cockerams book contained brief definitions of words that may have been important to the 17th century elite who may have wanted to leave an educated impression on those they spoke with. Many of his words, were ambiguous contrivances cobbled together from bits and pieces of Latin, and were therefore amusingly inventive; however lacked clear understanding. While the second part of his book reversed the process, listing everyday words, following them with his inventive version of meanings meant to show people how to turn simple statements into more impressive complicated ones. Fortunately, this allure to the obscure finally ended. The 18th century once again brought changes to the English language. These evolutionary changes were brought on by two major events; the first was the ascent of the British Empire and the British Industrial Revolution. The ascent of the British Empire introduced the English language to the world; and the new discoveries in the industrial and scientific fields introduced new words into the English language. The classic languages did not support words like oxygen, nuclear, protein or vaccine, therefore Late Modern English relied heavily on Latin and Greek for the creation of these new words. Late Modern English is the form of English that has lasted through to the 21st century, continuing to add new words every few years, as generations of people start using them. A perfect example of 21st century evolution in English today, is the use of SMS language to replace complete words while using the newest technology of cellular phones and computer chat rooms in the internet. SMS English is t he use of acronyms to state either a whole word or a grouping of words to relay a message. It is a form of the English language that was used during the time of the telegraph, and although using it to relay a message within a text message may be faster and easier, it does not follow any standard rules for grammar or spelling or even which acronyms are word specific. Some have claimed that the use of SMS English is wrecking the English language, and from what I have heard and read in my college rhetoric classes, I tend to agree. However, with the addition of at least one SMS word in the English dictionary recently, it appears that the increased use of this dialect is at hand. What evolutionary change could be next after that of SMS? Could the English language evolve from SMS to more technical forms like that of fax machines? Can you imagine walking into a classroom or down the street and listening to people use beeps and slurs to communicate? One thing we do know for sure is that change and evolution is inevitable, and the changes on the horizon will come just as we learn what OMG and LOL are meant to convey.

Plato on the Existence of Negative Forms Essay -- Plato Philosophy Neg

Plato on the Existence of Negative Forms The question of the origin and nature of evil in the world has preoccupied philosophers throughout history. The ancient philosopher Plato does not directly address this question in his writings, but it can be argued that the logic of his theory of forms demands the existence of forms that are negative in meaning, such as the evil and the bad. When discussing his theory of imitation, Plato alludes to the principle that whenever there are many things of the same nature, there is one form for that nature. In several passages, Plato makes mention of many negative things. It can be debated, however, whether or not the negative has a positive ontological character of its own for which there can be a form. The several senses in which an object can be considered negative must first be distinguished before the texts of Plato can be analyzed. It will be shown that, although Plato makes references in the Republic to a common nature amongst many negative things, the supposition of a negative form is not in harmony with the hierarchal structure of forms that depends on the good, which is also presented in the Republic. A solution to this problem will be presented and analyzed. In order to understand why it is argued that negative forms must exist according to Plato's logic, one must first understand the meaning of form for Plato. Plato thinks that forms are separate and eternal entities that exist apart from the sensible world. Plato thinks that objects in the sensible world imitate a particular form and that form makes them what they are. Plato writes, "As you know, we customarily hypothesize a single form in connection with each of the many things to which w... ...rendon Press), 167-9. [4] Ross, 168. [5] Ross, 168. [6] Plato, Statesman, trans. Seth Benardete (Chicage: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 262 d. [7] Plato, Republic, 491 d 3. [8] Plato, Republic, 608 e 3. [9] Plato, Republic, 609 a 4-7. [10] Plato, Republic, 610 b 4-6. [11] Plato, Republic, 382 b. [12] Plato, Republic, 476 a. [13] Plato, Republic, 507 b 10-11. [14] Plato, Republic, 509 b 11-c. [15] Plato, Republic, 508 c-e. [16] Plato, Republic, 508 b ? 509 a 3. [17] Plato, Republic, 509 b 7 - 7 [18] Plato, Republic, 379 a 6 - c. [19] I.M. Crombie, An Examination of Plato?s Doctrines: Plato on Knowledge and Reality (New York: The Humanities Press), 283. [20] Crombie, 283. [21] Crombie, 284. [22] Plato, Statesman, 262 d. [23] Ross, 169. [24] Plato, Republic, 491 d 3. [25] Crombie, 284.

Human being Essay

There has always been a concern as to why some people behave in some weird ways that not any ordinary person will act in such a manner. It is a fact that all individuals are different from each other but there are expectations that human beings have over others. That certain character trait should not be expected in a normal human being. A study into the issues of psychopath and sociopath will help to show some light to the question of how different persons can be described and classified in a view of understanding human behavior and human psychology. Who are psychopaths or sociopaths? According to Patrick (2007) a psychopath or a sociopath is an individual who displays unique unordinary behaviors as compared to the other normal human beings. Such an individual shows signs of not having any guilt or troubled conscience for something he or she has done which is wrong, likes putting blame on other people for the mistakes that he or she commits, likes lying all the time about several issues, do not value other people as fellow human beings, get involved in destructive actions fights and wars, some are sexually irresponsible, have low self control, not realistic in whatever they plan and do, and seem to attract the attention of others by portraying a false picture of themselves among other unordinary behaviors. What are the causes? As argued in Goldstein and Weiner (2003) there are some reasons that have been found out to result in the development of such character traits some of them include; in born traits that a person inherits from his or her family background, some could happen where the society in which people live in draws lines of behaviors that seem to be extra ordinary from the rest of others in the society, would come also as a result of the influences of the external environment and as a result of the adaptive strategies in a bid to survive in the world with others and the problems and experiences that a person underwent while growing will also contribute like if a person was exposed to violent circumstances in hi or her childhood the same things are likely to be done by that person. Is the female psychopath different from the male sociopath? How and in what way? Why is this important to understand? The way in which a female psychopath behaves tends to be more similar to that of their male counterparts although the ratio of male to female a bit higher. The kind of activities that they involve themselves in are the ones that will help to distinguish the differences but basically the same idea is that they all display behaviors that seem to be unruly, Berecz (1999). A female psychopath will show behaviors like; most of them would not want to get into a serious marriage commitment by staying with a husband but instead would prefer to stay alone with her children, would want to be draw the attention of the people around her, likely to mistreat her own children, she does not want to strive for anything that can help her but instead will want other people to do everything she is supposed to do for her benefit Million, Simonsen and Smith (2003). According to Gill and Barraclough (2007) such a female person is too proud of herself and could want to have all the things that others have to herself. In some cases will want to attempt suicide as a way to deal with her problems, all her life she will be blaming other people for the miseries she might be undergoing. She engages in criminal activities like conning people their belongings, leading people to crimes, are drug addicts of a high extent with their life styles leading to sex exploits and males and females they way she wishes for herself which in some instances could include killing. As discussed in Herve and Yuille (2007) the males will involve themselves in very many sexual relationships with women and will be able to convince women with a lot of ease to get into relationships with him. He tends to spend his money in a reckless way, like involving themselves in criminal activities like murder, violent robberies, once he marries he is likely to abandon his wife and children and being unfaithful to the other spouse. Involve themselves in ungodly acts like having sex with the animals, would like to cover his weaknesses with good acts like being generous with his wealth. They are also likely to drug addicts like alcohol, bhang among others. Conclusion According to the analysis that has been made above the way Female psychopaths behave is different from the way male sociopaths would behave because men are more energetic and will display the disorders that they have with relating with others by use of applying force in either fighting, car breaking , among other physical means of applying force. As for the females their disorders will be see through the various reacts that a female will undertake like her talking and other means of communication. They involve themselves in many sexual relationships and will get away with it from all the partners without admitting to that behavior among others Berecz (1999). Word count 876 References Alan Goldstein, Irving Weiner (2003). Forensic psychology: Forensic psychology. John Wiley and sons publishers. Christopher J. Patrick (2007). Handbook of Psychopathy. Guilford press. David Gill, Jennifer Barraclough (2007). Hughes’ outline of modern psychiatry. 5th edition, John Wiley and sons publishers. John M. Berecz (1999). Sexual styles: a psychologist’s guide to understanding our lover’s personality. Humanics publishing group H Herve, John C. Yuille (2007). The psychopath: theory, research and practice. Routledge publishers. Theodore Million, E. Simonsen, M. B smith (2003). Psychopapthy: Antisocial, criminal and violent behavior. Guilford press. .

Strategies of Knowledge Acquisition

Strategies of Knowledge Acquisition Author(s): Deanna Kuhn, Merce Garcia-Mila, Anat Zohar, Christopher Andersen, Sheldon H. White, David Klahr, Sharon M. Carver Source: Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Vol. 60, No. 4, Strategies of Knowledge Acquisition (1995), pp. i+iii+v-vi+1-157 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/1166059 . Accessed: 16/09/2011 13:38 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . ttp://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Black well Publishing and Society for Research in Child Development are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. ttp://www. jstor. org OF MONOGRAPHS THE IN FOR SOCIETY RESEARCH CHILD DEVELOPMENT Serial No. 245, Vol. 60, No. 4, 1995 OF STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION Deanna Kuhn Merce Garcia-Mila Anat Zohar Andersen Christopher BY WITH COMMENTARY SheldonH. White David Klahr and Sharon M. Carver BY AND A REPLY THEAUTHORS MONOGRAPHSTHE OF SOCIETY RESEARCH FOR INCHILD DEVELOPMENT SerialNo. 245, Vol. 60, No. 4, 1995 CONTENTS ABSTRACT v I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. METHOD 24 III. KNOWLEDGE IN ACQUISITION ADULTS 33 IV. KNOWLEDGE IN ACQUISITION CHILDREN 42 V. STRATEGIES STRATEGY AND CHANGE ADULTS 50 IN VI.STRATEGIES STRATEGY AND CHANGE CHILDREN 64 IN VII. THE PROCESS CHANGE OF 75 VIII. CONCLUSIONS 98 REFERENCES121 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 128 COMMENTARY TOWARD EVOLUTIONARY AN EPISTEMOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC REASONING SheldonH. Wh ite 129 SCIENTIFIC THINKING ABOUT SCIENTIFIC THINKING David Klahr and Sharon M. Carver 137 REPLY SCIENTIFIC AND KNOWLEDGE THINKING ACQUISITION Deanna Kuhn 152 CONTRIBUTORS 158 STATEMENT OF EDITORIAL POLICY 160 ABSTRACT KUHN, DEANNA; GARCIA-MILA,MERCE; ZOHAR, ANAT; and ANDERSEN, CHRISTOPHER. WithCommentary Strategiesof KnowledgeAcquisition. nd H. KLAHR SHARON CARVER; and SHELDON WHITE by DAVID M. by KUHN. and a Reply by DEANNA theSociety Research in Monographs of for Child 1995, 60(4, SerialNo. 245). Development, In this Monograph, is knowledgeacquisition examinedas a processinthe coordinationof existing theorieswith new evidence. Although volving researchers studyingconceptualchange have describedchildren'sevolving theorieswithinnumerousdomains,relatively little attentionhas been given to the mechanisms meansof whichtheoriesare formed and revisedand by knowledgeis therebyacquired.Centralto the presentworkis the claimthat strategiesof knowledge acquisitionmay vary significantlyacross (as well as within) individualsand can be conceptualizedwithin a developmental framework. To studythese strategiesand their development,we use a microgenetic method. Our application the method allowsextendedobservation the of of of acquisition knowledgewithina domain,of the strategiesused to acquire this knowledge,and of the changein these strategies overtime.The method also allows qualitativeanalysisof individualsand quantitativeanalysisof groups to be used in complementary ways. Knowledge acquisition processeswereexaminedat twoage levels. Community college adults and preadolescentsparticipatedin two 30-45-min individualsessionseach week over a 10-weekperiod. Subjectsworked on problemsinvolvinga broad range of contentfrom both physicaland social domains. A transfer design was situated within this microgeneticframework,for the purposeof assessinggeneralityof strategies withthe introduction of new content.Subjectsof both ages showedprogressacrossthe 10 weeksin the level of strategie sused as well as similarity the form that this progresstook. in levelsthatdid not varygreatly,childrenshowed Despiteinitialperformance V less strategic improvement than adults and inferior knowledge acquisition. Strategic progress was maintained by both groups when new problem content was introduced midway through the sessions. The results thus indicate significant generality of strategies and strategy change across content, as well as populations.A further indication of generality was the emergence of new strategies at about the same time in the social and physical domains, even though performance in the social domain overall lagged behind that in the physical domain. At the individual level, mixed usage of valid and invalid strategies was the norm. This finding in an adult population suggests that this variability is a more general characteristic of human performance, rather than one unique to states of developmental transition.Another broad implication of this variability is that single-occasion assessment may provide an at best incomplete, and often misleading, characterization of an individual's approach. Still another implication is that at least part of variability in performance across content resides in the subject, rather than exclusively in the task. That superior strategies present in an individual's repertory are not always applied highlights the fact that more is involved in competent performance than the ability to execute effective strategies.Metastrategic competence-the ability to reflect on and manage strategic knowledge-and metacognitive competence-the ability to reflect on the content of one's knowledge-are emphasized as critical components of cognitive development. These competencies determine the strategies that are actually used, among those potentially available, and therefore the effectiveness of an individual's performance. Finally, the presence of multiple strategies and multiple forms of competence greatly complicates the portrayal of developmental change. Rather than a nidimensional transition from a to b, the change process must be conceptualized in terms of multiple components following individual (although not independent) paths. VI I. INTRODUCTION Knowledge acquisition is a process fundamental to survival that begins early and continues throughout the life span. What do we know of the process? Research within the last decade has made it clear that from an early age knowledge is organized into theories that are elaborated and revised over time and that serve as vehicles for understanding the world.In other words, knowledge acquisition to a large degree occurs through a process of theory formation and revision. Among researchers adopting a knowledge- or theory-based approach to cognitive development, the focus has been on describing the content of these evolving theories in a wide range of domains, and we now know a good deal about the progressively more elaborated knowledge that children of various ages ar e likely to have within numerous content domains (Gelman & Wellman, in press; Wellman & Gelman, 1992).In contrast, relatively little attention has been given to the process of knowledge acquisition itself, that is, the mechanisms by means of which theories are formed and revised and knowledge is thereby acquired. It is this topic that is the focus of the present work. Within the knowledge-based approach, the assumption that has been at least implicit, and is occasionally voiced explicitly (Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991; Carey, 1985a, 1986), is that these mechanisms remain more or less constant across development.The present work rests on a contrasting claim that strategies of knowledge acquisition vary significantly across (as well as within) individuals and can be conceptualized in developmental terms. KNOWLEDGE AS ACQUISITION THEORY-EVIDENCE COORDINATION The general form of knowledge and knowledge acquisition studied here is that of the relation between one category of event and a nother. Most commonly, such relations are construed causally (Cheng & Nisbett, 1993), with an antecedent category of event interpreted as influencing an outcome IKUHNETAL. category (e. g. , ingestion of food and a child's bodily growth). Underpinning this form of knowledge is a more basic one having to do with how events or objects fit together into categories (e. g. , foods, nonfoods, and permanent vs. temporary bodily changes). Although the latter is not examined here, both forms of knowledge involve theories as organizing devices (Barrett, Abdi, Murphy, & Gallagher, 1993; Keil, 1991; Medin, 1989; Wisniewski & Medin, 1994).Children's and adults' theories about causal relations undergo revision as new evidence is encountered. Hence, knowledge acquisition strategies involve the evaluation of evidence and inductive causal inference. Recent theories of inductive causal inference in adults (Cheng & Novick, 1990, 1992) are consistent with earlier accounts (Alloy & Tabachnik, 1984; Holla nd, Holyoak, Nisbett, & Thagard, 1986) in attributing prominent roles both to prior expectation (or theory) and to evidence of covariation (of the relevant factors) in fostering inferences of causality.It is difficult to explain not only simple concept formation (Keil, 1991) but even basic conditioning phenomena in animals without invoking a construct that involves expectation (Holyoak, Koh, & Nisbett, 1989). A conception of inductive inference as involving a coordination of theory and evidence (Kuhn, 1989) contrasts with earlier approaches to the development of inductive inference strategies-for example, the Piagetian research on formal operations-in which such strategies were regarded as largely domain independent and therefore equally applicable to any content irrespective of prior knowledge or expectation.In empirical studies of adults' multivariable inductive causal inference, subjects typically are provided with a set of multiple instances in which one or more potential causes does or does not occur and an outcome is present or absent (Cheng & Novick, 1990, 1991; Downing, Sternberg, & Ross, 1985; Schustack & Sternberg, 1981). The subject is asked to evaluate the evidence and draw inferences regarding the causal status of one or more of the factors.Although this approach can reveal much about how varying patterns of evidence affect inference, it does not lend much insight into the minimumconditions for an inference of causality, which may be as little as a single co-occurrence (of antecedent and outcome), even in the clear presence of additional covariates (Kuhn & Phelps, 1982). Moreover, in natural settings, even when multiple instances are readily available, there is no reason to believe that individuals will seek out and attend to all of them.For both these reasons, we were interested in studying situations in which subjects are free to select the evidence on which they base their inferences, a condition that links the present work to research on scien tific reasoning (Klahr, Fay, & Dunbar, 1993; Kuhn, Amsel, & O'Loughlin, 1988; Kuhn, Schauble, & Garcia-Mila, 1992), as we discuss further later in this chapter. Yet the cognitive skills examined in this Monograph are, we believe, 2 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION epresentative of processes of knowledge acquisition and inductive inference more broadly (Kuhn, 1993). We therefore situate the present work in this broader context. Methodologically, this means that we examine knowledge acquisition across a broad range of domains involving both physical and social phenomena, rather than restricting the investigation to traditional scientific domains. THE MICROGENETIC METHOD To study knowledge acquisition strategies and their development, we use a microgenetic method.The virtues of the microgenetic method as a tool for examining change have been elaborated in our own earlier work (Kuhn & Phelps, 1982) and more recently by Siegler and Crowley (1991). The evolution of behaviors that one o bserves over time in microgenetic study can serve to corroborate cross-sectional differences in performance. Most important, however, the method offers the opportunity for detailed analysis of the process of change. Later in this chapter, we summarize findings from previous research utilizing a microgenetic method.An important feature of the method is that changes over time are initiated by subjects themselves, in interaction with the problems materials, rather than by the investigator, who provides no instruction or feedback with respect to a subject's approaches to a problem. The rationale is that increased density of exercise of existing strategies may lead to change that, except for occurring comparatively rapidly, otherwise resembles a naturally occurring change process.The researcher is thereby afforded close observation of the process. In addition, a third potential benefit of the method is its capacity to provide a fuller, more accurate picture of competence than can be atta ined using a single-occasion method. If a subject's performance improves after a few sessions of engagement, it tells us that this level of performance was within the subject's capabilities and accordingly should be recognized as part of his or her competence, or â€Å"zone of proximal development† in Vygotsky's (1978) terms.In several respects, the method used in the work reported in this Monograph is an elaborated form of the microgenetic method, one that has not been used in other microgenetic research. First, we simultaneously track two kinds of change over time within a domain. One is the subject's evolving knowledge within that domain (specifically, knowledge of the causal and noncausal relations among variables that reflect the structure of the domain). The second kind of change is in strategies of knowledge acquisition, which may also evolve as knowledge is being acquired.In other uses of the microgenetic method, typically only one form of change has been observed, 3 KUHNETAL. for example, in strategies for solving addition problems (Siegler & Jenkins, 1989). A second respect in which the basic microgenetic method is elaborated is that we observe change within multiple domains in which the subject is engaged at the same time. Doing so allows us to compare both knowledge acquisition and evolving strategy usage across domains (as well as relating the two to one another within domains).We wished to examine a broad range of domains, involving both physical and social content, to establish the generality of the knowledge acquisition processes being examined. The research design thus stipulated that each subject undergo parallel engagement with one problem in the physical content domain and one problem in the social content domain. A number of considerations lead to the prediction of greater challenge (and hence inferior performance) in the social domain. Among these are the possibly more extensive initial knowledge (whether or not it is correct) in t he social domain and possibly greater ffective investment in this knowledge (Kunda, 1990), either of which would make the task of theory-evidence coordination more difficult. A third elaboration of the microgenetic method is reflected in a research design that incorporates a traditional transfer design within a microgenetic framework. The purpose, again, is to establish generality of the knowledge acquisition strategies that we examine. The traditional transfer design used to assess generality of a skill across content domains is problematic for a number of reasons that we need not review here.A further problem arises if (as we show here to be the case) a subject at a given point in time does not possess just a single strategy but instead selects strategies from a repertory of multiple strategies. If so, single-occasion assessment within a single content domain may produce an inaccurate and misleading characterization (since the subject could have selected a different strategy on th is particular occasion and might do so on another occasion); in this case, accurate single-occasion assessment of generality acrossdomains is precluded.The multiple-task, multiple-occasion assessment employed here allows us to assess generality in a more dynamic way than is afforded by a traditional transfer design. Each subject worked on a problem in the physical domain at one weekly session and a problem in the social domain at a second weekly session, for each of the first 5 weeks of a 10-week period of observation. At the beginning of the sixth week, new problems within each of the domains were substituted, and the sessions continued for the remaining five weeks.The question we ask is whether the substitution of new content affects the strategies that the subject uses. To the extent that the same set of strategies that a subject uses in the final encounters with the initial problem carries over to the new content, some degree of domain generality (of both strategies and strategy change) is indicated. A final elaboration of the microgenetic method is to replicate the design 4 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION with multiple age groups, enabling us to compare the knowledge acquisition process across age levels.In addition to providing further evidence regarding the generality of knowledge acquisition processes (across populations in this case, rather than content), this comparison is important in addressing a more specific question. The pattern observed in our own as well as others' microgenetic work has been one of mixed, or variable, strategy usage, as we describe in the next section. In other words, instead of a single, consistent approach, the subject shows variable usage of a variety of more and less competent approaches, even though the problem environment remains constant.An ambiguity arises, however, owing to the fact that the subjects observed in microgenetic work have been either assumed or assessed to be in a state of transition with respect to t he competencies in question. It is possible, therefore, that the variable strategy usage that has been observed is a particular characteristic of a developmental transition state, as dynamic systems theories of development predict (Van der Maas & Molenaar, 1992). It thus becomes important to ask whether the same variability over repeated occasions would be observed among populations at other than a characteristic age of transition.If it is, it suggests that this variability is a more general characteristic of human performance, rather than one unique to states of developmental transition. To address this fundamental question, we chose preadolescents and community college adults as the two populations on which to base such a comparison. Previous work (Klahr et al. , 1993; Kuhn et al. , 1988) establishes the preadolescent age level as one at which the strategies in question are just beginning to emerge.However, some young adult populations show initial levels of performance little mor e advanced than those characteristic of preadolescents (Kuhn et al. , 1988), enabling us to compare subjects of these two ages in a microgenetic design. In addition to establishing whether strategy change occurs at periods other than the typical period of developmental transition, the design allows cross-age comparison of the process of knowledge acquisition as well as of the interaction of knowledge acquisition and strategy change. Another set of questions centers on the effects of the exercise provided by the microgenetic method.Despite similar starting points, does one age group show more rapid evolution of strategies than another group, both having been provided comparable exercise? Does such change differ only in degree or also in form? These questions are central to establishing the generality of knowledge acquisition strategies across populations. A final purpose of this Monographis to present a method of analysis that combines qualitative analysis of individuals with quantit ative analysis of groups of individuals. Observers of the field's progress, such as White (1994a, 1994b), have lamented the limited range of methods to which devel5KUHNETAL. opmental researchers have restricted themselves. Especially in undertaking to study the difficult topic of processes of change, innovative methods are called for. In particular, the study of individual subjects is receiving increasing attention as an important and neglected method. As a research method, however, single-subject analysis most often is treated skeptically, and even dismissed, on the assumption that it is severely limited by its inability to provide evidence of the generality of the phenomena observed.Here, we undertake to illustrate how individual and group, as well as qualitative and quantitative, modes of analysis can be used in conjunction to provide an enriched understanding of developmental phenomena. In the next section, we discuss previous research in more detail, in order to situate the pre sent research effort in the context of various lines of work to which it connects. The reader wishing to focus exclusively on the present work can proceed directly to the final section of this chapter, which introduces the inference forms that figure prominently in later chapters.THE PRESENT STUDY THE IN CONTEXT PASTRESEARCH OF FromLearning ConceptualChange to It was only a few decades ago that knowledge acquisitionand learning were treated as synonymous terms, both referring to a process of strengthening of associative bonds between stimuli and responses. In developmental psychology, Kendler and Kendler (1975) deserve the major credit for moving the field beyond a conceptualization of the developing child as a â€Å"cluster of interrelated responses† (Bijou & Baer, 1961, p. 4) and delving into the black box that represented mental phenomena. Although the Kendlers' modeling of such phenomena in terms of covert stimuli and responses was highly restrictive, they demonstrated co nvincingly that the learning process cannot be studied without considering the developmental status of the organism. That insight remains a central one today. What individuals already know and how that knowledge is organized constrains what and how new knowledge will be acquired.The burgeoning area of research that has come to be known as the study of conceptual change documents the development of knowledge in numerous domains, with physics (Vosniadou & Brewer, 1987, 1992) and biology (Carey, 1985b) the domains that have been the object of greatest study. Extensive literature reviews are provided by Gelman and Wellman (in press) and Wellman and Gelman (1992). The main tenet underlying and connecting these individual lines of 6 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION research is that cognitive development can be adequately accounted for in terms of developing knowledge within content domains.As a consequence, findings are largely specific to the domain studied. The major insight that ext ends across domains is the theory-like organization of knowledge. Even the properties that define simple concepts cluster and mutually support one another. Conceptions of such homeostatic causal clusters, and the mechanisms underlying them, are the â€Å"glue† that makes features cohere (Keil, 1991). At a less elementary level, evidence exists suggesting that young children's theories have properties such as consistency, coherence, comprehensiveness, and explanatory power (Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991; Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992).As noted earlier, relatively little attention has been given to the mechanisms that effect theory change. When and how does new evidence lead to modification of existing theories? Despite theoretical claims that these mechanisms are developmentally invariant (Brewer & Samarapungavan, 1991; Carey, 1985a, 1986), little empirical work has been devoted to investigating them. Some research has been done to support claims that theory change will be more dif ficult to accomplish if it crosses ontological categories (Chi, 1992), involves radical (vs. eak) restructuring (Carey, 1990), or violates entrenched beliefs (Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992). But how should the mechanisms of change be conceptualized? Keil (1988, 1989, 1991) has addressed this question with respect to the formation of elementary concepts, contrasting accounts maintaining (a) that such concepts arise out of networks of associations observed in the environment, (b) that the process is theory guided, or (c) that at some point a developmental shift occurs from the first to the second process.Keil (1991) rejects the possibilities of an exclusive associative network process and a developmental shift from such a process to a theory-guided one, asking how coherent theories could arise out of networks of associations. Instead, he proposes, all concepts represent a blend of an associative matrix overlaid with causal beliefs. Humans have evolved adaptations for building knowledge rep resentations about sets of regularities in the world, but these processes are never completely data driven or completely theory driven.In the present work, we address a similar question regarding the mechanisms of conceptual change but in this case with respect to the secondorder concepts of relations (particularly causal relations) between elementary conceptual categories. We adopt a perspective resembling Keil's that the mechanism entails the coordination of new evidence with an existing network of theories. What are the strategies that an individual uses to achieve this coordination, and do they change with age and practice? Addressing this question leads to the topics of inductive causal inference and scientific reasoning.First, however, we examine issues involved in the study of change. 7 KUHNETAL. Learning,Transfer,and the Study of Change The process of knowledge acquisition is likely to figure prominently in any comprehensive theory of human cognitive functioning. One promine nt example is Sternberg's (1984, 1985) triarchic theory, in which knowledge acquisition mechanisms are one of several core components of the intellect. But how is knowledge acquisition studied empirically? Psychologists studying very simple, short-term learning processes may be able to observe these processes directly in the laboratory.The study of more comprehensive kinds of cognitive change, however, especially those involving change in knowledge acquisition strategies themselves, poses serious methodological challenges. Developmental psychologists have been in the particularly difficult position of seeking to understand developmental change without observing it directly. As has now been widely noted, the cross-sectional and even longitudinal designs that are the staples of developmental psychology may provide suggestive data regarding change, but they do not afford direct observation of the process Wohlwill, 1973). The microgenetic method has been advocated as a way out of this i mpasse. As described by Kuhn and Phelps (1982), the goal of the method is to accelerate the change process by providing a subject with frequent opportunities over a period of weeks or months to engage the particular cognitive strategies that are the object of investigation. This increased density of exercise of existing strategies may lead to change, allowing the researcher close observation of the process.In the initial work by Kuhn and Phelps (1982), we chose strategies of wide applicability as a basis for exploring the utility of the methodstrategies of inductive causal inference that are fundamental to knowledge acquisition and can be identified in both scientific and informal reasoning (Kuhn, 1991, 1993). In weekly sessions, preadolescent subjects were asked to identify causal and noncausal effects as they freely investigated a domain in which multiple variables played potential causal roles in influencing an outcome.Strategies of investigation and inference did improve in a ma jority of subjects over the period of observation. In a comparison condition (Kuhn & Ho, 1980), subjects each week were presented with a set of antecedentoutcome instances identical to that which the subject's yoked control in the free investigation condition had selected for examination; these subjects also showed some, but less, change. Subsequent research (Kuhn et al. , 1992; Schauble, 1990, in press), including the present study, has followed this same paradigm of microgenetic examination of inductive inference strategies in multivariable contexts.Meanwhile, other developmental researchers, notably Siegler and his colleagues (Siegler & Jenkins, 1989), began to use the microgenetic method, in Siegler's case in the very different domain of elementary addition strategies. 8 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION Among other researchers who have used a microgenetic method in various domains are Bidell and Fischer (1994), Granott (1993), Karmiloff-Smith (1984), Lawler (1985), and Metz ( 1985, 1993). In addition, a line of Genevan work beginning with a study by Karmiloff-Smith and Inhelder (1974) falls under the heading of microgenetic research.In certain respects, modern microgenetic research connects to work in the genetic tradition of Werner (1948), although the latter was limited to observation within a single session. Enough microgenetic work has accrued by now to make comparison and generalization possible (Siegler & Crowley, 1991). Studies conducted within very different domains show convergence in several important respects. Most important, they provide a clear indication of what the change process is not-simple replacement of a less adequate approach with a more adequate one.Instead, subjects commonly exhibit intraindividual variability in the strategies that they apply to identical problems, with less adequate strategies coexisting in a subject's repertory together with more adequate ones. The initial appearance of a new strategy, then, does not mark its c onsistent application. Instead, less adequate strategies continue to compete with it, and, indeed, the more formidable challenge appears to be abandoning the old, rather than acquiring the new-a reversal in the way that development is traditionally conceived.Change does occur, but it appears as a gradual shift in the distribution of use of a set of strategies of varying adequacy. The most recent microgenetic work (Granott, 1993; Metz, 1993) offers a number of additional insights regarding the nature of the change process. We return to them in the final chapter in discussing insights from the present work. As described earlier in this chapter, a main purpose of the present work is to extend the microgenetic method in ways that address several critical questions.One is whether the variability and change observed in microgenetic studies is particular to subjects in a period of developmental transition or is a more general phenomenon. A second is the extent to which such change is gener al as opposed to domain specific. Domain specificity versus domain generality of cognitive strategies is a topic at the heart of much current debate in the field of cognitive development (KarmiloffSmith, 1994). In a previous study (Kuhn et al. , 1992), we addressed this question by having subjects work simultaneously in two domains, with separate sessions each week devoted to each.This study provided some evidence of generality in that improvements in strategy tended to co-occur in rough synchrony across the two domains. These findings, however, do not provide an answer to the more traditional question of whether the newly developed competencies would transfer to new content to which the subject had not been previously exposed. This question is addressed in the present work. Studies of transfer have served as the traditional means for assessing generality: Does a newly acquired competency transfer to a new context? 9 KUHN ET AL.Whether the subjects are preschool children or college adults, in a majority of cases the answer has been no. Such findings have led to critical scrutiny of the transfer construct (Detterman & Sternberg, 1993) as well as increasingly domain-specific conceptions of cognitive development (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992). Why should transfer to new contexts be expected? Two prevailing conceptualizations of transfer offer somewhat different answers. In the more common conceptualization, transfer is seen as mediated by a symbolic representation of the problem domain (Brown, 1989, 1990; Gentner, 1983, 1989; Holyoak, 1984; Singley & Anderson, 1989).To the extent that there is overlap between the representations of two problem domains (i. e. , the extent to which the elements of one map onto the elements of the other), transfer between the two should occur. In a study by Brown and Kane (1988), for example, subjects had to recognize a connection between pulling a boat ashore with a fishing rod and pulling someone out of a hole with a spade. A somewhat di fferent conception of transfer (Greeno, Smith, & Moore, 1993) emphasizes the activity that the problem solver engages in.To the extent the activity is common to two settings, transfer will occur. In the words of Greeno et al. (1993, p. 146), â€Å"The structure that enables transfer is in the interactive activity of the person in the situation. †¦ When transfer occurs it is because of general properties and relations of the person's interaction with features of a situation. † It is this latter conception of transfer that fits our paradigm better than the first one (which is sometimes referred to as analogical transfer).The strategies that subjects develop are very broadly applicable across a wide range of content, but subjects learn to apply these strategies only within the context of particular, relatively narrow content. Will these strategies generalize to new and diverse kinds of content? This classic transfer question is complicated by the findings from microgenetic research. As noted earlier, microgenetic data indicate that, at a given point in time, a subject does not possess just a single strategy but instead selects trategies from a repertory that includes multiple strategies of varying adequacy. Given this situation, assessment on a single occasion within a single content domain may produce an inaccurate characterization of the subject'scompetence (since the subject might have selected a different strategy). As a consequence, studies that assess competence across domains are even more error prone. To overcome these limitations, in the present work we situate the transfer design in a microgenetic context, substituting new content midway through the observation period.Through this technique we hope to answer a critical question about the generality of the change induced in microgenetic studies as well as to assess transfer in a more dynamic way than it has been approached in the past. 10 STRATEGIES OFKNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION Metacognition,Forma lOperations,and ScientificReasoning Piaget (1950; Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, 1969) offered an explicit account of a developmental progression in strategies of knowledge acquisition. Young children construct rudimentary concepts of the type examined by Keil (1989, 1991) that we referred to earlier.With the advent of concrete operations at the age of 6 or 7, concepts acquire the properties of systematic hierarchical classes. A further major development occurs with the appearance of formal operations at adolescence, when second-order relations between categories begin to be examined-the skill on which the present Monographfocuses. Piaget's theoretical model of formal operations has been criticized (for a review, see Keating, 1980), and in his later work (Piaget & Garcia, 1991) there is evidence that even he came to regard the model as insufficiently concerned with the meaning of the propositions that subjects contemplated.Empirical research relating to formal operations has been largely focused on subjects'ability to conduct scientific investigation of the relations between variables in a multivariable context, and here, in contrast, Inhelder and Piaget's (1958) pioneering work has been substantially replicated (Keating, 1980; Moshman, in press). Both the methods and the conclusions of scientific investigation are likely to be faulty among subjects younger than midadolescence; moreover, as research subsequent to Inhelder and Piaget's has shown, even older adolescents and many adults often perform poorly as scientists (Dunbar & Klahr, 1989; Klahr et al. 1993; Kuhn et al. , 1988; Schauble & Glaser, 1990). Although they did not use the term, Inhelder and Piaget (1958) in effect attributed poor performance in scientific reasoning tasks to metacognitive weakness, defined as the inability to contemplate one's own thought as an object of cognition or, in their (1958) terms, to engage in second-order operations on operations. To the extent that such an ability is truly lac king, the ramifications no doubt extend well beyond the realm of scientific reasoning (Kuhn, 1992a, 1993).Subsequent to Inhelder and Piaget's (1958) work, metacognition has become a topic of widespread interest (Flavell, 1979, 1993; Flavell, Green, & Flavell, 1995; Flavell & Wellman, 1977; ForrestPressley, MacKinnon, & Waller, 1985; Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994; Moshman, 1979, 1990, 1995; Schneider, 1985), but the term has been variably and often loosely defined, with the majority of investigators employing it in its initial and more restricted sense of knowledge and management of one's cognitive strategies, particularly memory strategies.In the present work, we make a distinction between metacognitive knowledge and metastrategic knowledge, a distinction that parallels in many respects the lower-order distinction between declarative and procedural 11 KUHNETAL. knowledge. Metacognitive knowledge involves awareness of and reflection on the content of one's thought, ranging from simple a wareness of the content of one's present or immediately prior thought (Flavell et al. , 1995) to reflection on a set of propositions that one believes to be true or chooses to take under consideration (Moshman, 1990).Metastrategic knowledge involves awareness and management of the strategies that are applied in the course of thinking and problem solving (Sternberg, 1984). Both metacognitive and metastrategic knowledge entail treating one's own cognition as itself an object of cognition-a form of cognitive â€Å"distancing†(Sigel, 1993). Both metacognitive and metastrategic knowledge, we will claim, figure importantly in the development of the cognitive skills examined in this Monograph.If knowledge acquisition is a process of theory revision, as we have claimed, to accomplish the process in a skilled way the individual needs to be aware of and reflect on a theory (metacognitive competence), coordinating it with new evidence by means of strategies that are inferentially sound and applied in a consistent manner (metastrategic competence). In the total absence of such competence, evidence and theory are not represented as distinct entities.In this case, new evidence may lead to modification of a theory (as it does even among very young children), but the process takes place outside the individual's conscious control (Kuhn, 1989). There is a problem, however, with attributing proficiency in knowledge acquisition or scientific reasoning to the development of metacognitive or metastrategic competencies emerging at adolescence. Competent scientific reasoning entails a number of component skills, and data exist suggesting that at least rudimentary forms of all these skills are in place well before adolescence.In addition to the metacognitive and metastrategic abilitiesjust discussed, included among these skills are the ability to entertain alternative possibilities, to detect and interpret covariation, and to isolate and control variables. One study (Richardson , 1992) in particular stands out for its strong claim of early competence. Even young children, the author maintains, readily interpret both additive and interactive effects of three or more variables-a claim that stands in striking contradiction to data to be presented in this Monographdemonstrating the difficulty that even adults have with such coordinations.The data from Richardson's study, however, cannot be clearly interpreted for a number of methodological reasons, foremost among them being the failure to examine individual patterns of performance and distinguish them from group data. The remaining studies of early competence make more modest claims that certain abilities traditionally associated with scientific reasoning are present in rudimentary forms in young children. Sodian, Zaitchik, and Carey (1991), for example, undertook a study to show that young children 12 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION an distinguish between an assertion and evidence that bears on the assert ion if the context is simple enough. They posed first- and second-grade in their house was a large or small one, which they did by placing food in a box overnight. Two boxes were available, one with a large opening (able to accommodate a large or a small mouse) and one with a small opening (big enough for only the small mouse to pass through). The subject was asked which of the two boxes the children should put food in. Sodian et al. (1991) report that 11 of 20 first graders and 12 of 14 second graders preferred the determinate solution (i. . , chose the small-opening box), indicating both considerable competence and considerable development in this age range. Sodian et al. (1991) note that their subjects' performance reflects a differentiation of hypothesis and evidence since the hypothesis (large or small mouse) is distinguished from the evidence that will test it (the food disappears or does not). Note, however, that the potential confusion in this case is not between theories an d evidence (mice and food) but rather lies in the selection of the form of evidence appropriate to test a theory.In a subsequent set of more detailed studies, Ruffman, Perner, Olson, and Doherty (1993) report similar evidence in comparably simple contexts even among some 5-year-olds (as well as 6- and 7-year-olds). In fact, everyday observation confirms that implicit forms of theory-evidence coordination occur at even earlier ages-illustrated, for example, by a 2-year-old who calls her parents into her bedroom with the claim that it is a ghost in her closet that is the cause of a soft â€Å"whooshing† noise that is keeping her awake.This child understands as well as her parents that opening the closet door will provide the evidence capable of disconfirming this causal hypothesis, even though she lacks any metacognitive awareness of her own belief states as hypotheses to be coordinated with evidence. The valuable function served by Ruffman et al. ‘s (1993) study is to ma ke clear the connection that exists between early theory-of-mind competencies (Feldman, 1992; Perner, 1991; Wellman, 1990) and competencies that figure importantly in scientific reasoning.Both have strong metacognitive aspects. The 4-year-old child who comes to recognize that an assertion is not necessarily correct-that the candy can be believed to be in the cupboard and in truth be elsewhere (Perner, 1991)-has achieved an essential milestone in the development of scientific reasoning ability. This child has made at least a primitive differentiation between what a mind theorizes to be true and information from the external world that bears on this theory. False beliefs, by definition, are subject to disconfirmation by evidence. Although it has ometimes been treated this way in the literature, metacognition, like cognition, is not a zero-one, present-absent phenomenon that emerges in full bloom at a particular point in development. The position subjectsa problemin which some children wanted to find out if a mouse 13 KUHNETAL. taken in this Monographis that the development of metacognitive competence, like that of metastrategic competence, takes place very gradually over many years and involves a process of increasing â€Å"explicitation†(KarmiloffSmith, 1992) of skills present in implicit form.Metacognitive competence develops from its most rudimentary forms (examined by Flavell and Gopnik and their colleagues in studies to be described shortly) to the more highly developed, explicit forms demanded by the activities in which subjects in the present research engage. Ruffman et al. (1993) illustrate the evolution of early emerging metacognitive capability relevant to scientific reasoning by asking subjects to reason about propositions as belief states (a requirement not present in Sodian et al. ‘s, 1991, study).They ensure that subjects do so by explicitly characterizing these belief states as false. Many (although not all) of the 5-7-year-olds in the ir research judged that a story character who observes a set of dolls who usually choose red over green food will conclude that the dolls like red food, even though the subjects themselves have been told that this is not the true state of affairs (the dolls really like green food, the subject is told). In this respect, the child comprehends the relation between a pattern of evidence and a theory (the contrary-to-fact hypothesis held by the story character).Put in different terms, the child can draw appropriate inferences from contrary-to-fact propositions (an ability that Piaget tied to the emergence of formal operations). In a follow-up experiment, Ruffman et al. showed that this comprehension extends to predictive judgments (e. g. , that the dolls will choose red food again). In theory-of-mind terms, these children are drawing appropriate inferences regarding others' belief states (or theories, as long as we agree to use this term in its broad sense), even when they have been told that these theories are not correct. The material is deliberately designed so that the child's own theoretical preferences are likely to be neutral. ) The portrayal of early proficiency in metacognitive competencies important to scientific reasoning that Ruffman et al. (1993) offer needs to be qualified, however, by other research demonstrating that the period between 4 and 8 years of age is one of significant development of the basic metacognitive competencies that serve as underpinnings of more complex forms of reasoning about propositions. A series of studies by Flavell et al. 1995) showed 3-5-year-old children to have considerable difficulty accurately reporting either their own immediately preceding mental activity or that of another individual, in contexts in which that mental activity had been particularly clear and salient. In contrast, 7-8-year-olds were largely (although not entirely) successful in such tasks. Distinctions between (second-order) representations (and conse quent verbal reports) of thinking about an object and (first-order) representations of the object itself appeared fragile in the younger children.The older ones, like children of a 14 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION similar age in Ruffman et al. ‘s (1993) research, were better able to make inferences that depended on representations of mental states. In related work, Gopnik and her colleagues (Gopnik & Graf, 1988; Gopnik & Slaughter, 1991) showed that preschoolers have a limited awareness of the source of their beliefs-a metacognitive ability that figures prominently in the work presented in this Monograph.Gopnik and Graf (1988) found that, even in very simple situations, 3- and 4-year-olds could not identify where knowledge they had just acquired had come from-for example, whether they had learned the contents of a drawer from seeing them or being told about them. Performance was significantly improved, however, among 5-year-olds. Some of Gopnik and Graf's 3- and 4-year-o lds might even have been successful in Sodian et al. ‘s (1991) task of differentiating and coordinating a theory (about a mouse's size) and evidence (of food eaten or not) bearing on it, but they showed remarkablylittle differentiation of theory and evidence at he metacognitive level of distinguishing the representation of what they knew (the contents of the drawer) from a representation of the evidence that had provided this knowledge. Once the knowledge was acquired, the two evidently became fused into a single representation that encompassed only the knowledge itself. Supporting this interpretation are other findings showing that preschool children report that they have â€Å"always known† knowledge that was just acquired in the experimental situation (Gopnik & Astington, 1988; Taylor, Esbensen, & Bennett, 1994).Evidence regarding early strategic (as opposed to metastrategic or metacognitive) competence related to scientific reasoning is largely positive. Ruffman et al. ‘s (1993) study substantiates that one of several simple strategic competencies entailed in scientific reasoning-inferring causality from covariation evidence-poses no great difficulty among young children, as earlier research had shown (Mendelson & Shultz, 1976; Shultz & Mendelson, 1975). Indeed, this ability is evident at the sensorimotor level in human infants (Piaget, 1952) as well as in nonhuman organisms.By the end of the first year of life, infants have begun to make causal inferences based on the juxtaposition of an antecedent and an outcome. As data in the present illustrate, it is the fact that this inference strategy is overlearned Monograph that causes problems. Precursors to the critical control-of-variables strategy most closely associated with scientific reasoning are also evident. Most elementary among these are judgments of comparison, first in terms of an individual (Can I run faster than my brother? , later in terms of groups of individuals (Can the girl s in the class run faster than the boys? ). Once the concept of a fair comparison emerges (What if the boys wore running shoes and the girls didn't? ), it remains only to formalize the comparison into the framework of a controlled test of relations between variables (gender and running speed). 15 KUHNETAL. Case (1974) has shown that, although they do not do so spontaneously, children as young as age 8 can readily be taught to carry out controlled comparisons.Early developing forms of metastrategic competence are also evident. A skill important to scientific reasoning is recognition of the indeterminacy associated with entertaining alternative possibilities. This skill is explored in a line of research beginning with studies by Pieraut-Le Bonniec (1980). During the early childhood years, children develop the ability to discriminate between situations that have determinate solutions and those that do not or, in other words, to know whether they have an answer-a competency having clear metastrategic aspects. For a review of research, see Acredolo & O'Connor, 1991, or Byrnes & Beilin, 1991. ) The study by Sodian et al. (1991) can also be interpreted in these terms. In the face of evidence of all this early competence, a perplexing problem is to explain the persistent poor performance of children, adolescents, and many adults in full-fledged scientific reasoning tasks, that is, ones in which they are asked to examine a database and draw conclusions (Dunbar & Klahr, 1989; Klahr et al. , 1993; Kuhn et al. 1988; Schauble & Glaser, 1990). Addressing this critical question is an important objective of the present Monograph. With repeated exercise, we find, knowledge acquisition strategies improve among most subjects, but these strategies remain error prone and inadequate among many adults as well as children. Microgenetic data will, we hope, provide insight into the obstacles that impede success in these fundamental forms of reasoning and knowledge acquisition. We there fore return to this question after the data have been presented.Inductive Causal Inferencein Multivariable Contexts It is a curiosity that research on scientific reasoning (originating and remaining largely in the developmental literature) has proceeded independently of and remains largely unintegrated with research on multivariable inductive causal inference (centered in the adult cognition literature). The central difference between the two is a simple one. Whereas studies of scientific reasoning typically involve selecting instances to create a database, studies of inductive causal inference involve presenting instances from a database for examination.In both, however, the subject must interpret the evidence and draw conclusions, these conclusions being the end product of the process in both cases. Kuhn and Brannock (1977) argued that the â€Å"natural experiment† situation involved in studies of inductive inference elicits forms of reasoning paralleling those identified i n earlier studies of isolation of variables within the framework of formal operations and scientific reasoning. 16 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITIONAlthough there exists a large literature on the development of causal inference (for a review, see Bullock, 1985; Bullock, Gelman, & Baillargeon, 1982; Sedlak & Kurtz, 1981), with the exception of our own developmental studies (Kuhn & Brannock, 1977; Kuhn & Phelps, 1982; Kuhn et al. , 1988) theoretical and empirical work on multivariable causal inference has largely been located in the adult cognition literature. Like much of the literature on scientific reasoning development, the developmental literature on causal inference highlights the child's early competence.As noted earlier, from an early age children draw on covariation information, as well as other cues, as a basis for inferences of causality (Mendelson & Shultz, 1976; Shultz & Mendelson, 1975). Equally important, from an early age they have theories of causal mechanism that i nfluence their causal judgments (Shultz, 1982), a finding consonant with the more recent conceptual change literature. Within the adult literature, theoretical analysis has focused largely on covariation as the most important source of information about causality.Mill's (1843/1973) ‘joint method of agreement and difference† identifies covariation as the appropriate basis for inferences of causality, and Kelley's (1967) extensively researched attribution model similarly rests on covariation between antecedent and outcome. More recent investigators have followed in this tradition but have sought to identify more precisely the inductive strategies that mediate between a covariational database and an inference of causality.In empirical studies, typically a set of multivariable instances is presented in written form and the subject asked to judge what inferences can be drawn (Briggs, 1991; Cheng & Novick, 1990; Downing et al. , 1985; Schustack & Sternberg, 1981). On the basis of such data, Schustack and Sternberg (1981) developed a linear regression model to assign weights to five types of covariation information. The first four are frequencies of the joint presence of antecedent and outcome, the joint absence of antecedent and outcome, the presence of antecedent and the absence of outcome, and the bsence of antecedent and the presence of outcome. A fifth factor is the strength of competing causes. Although adult subjects show consistency, leading to positive regression weights for the first two frequencies and negative weights for the second two, Cheng and Novick (1992) identify several theoretical anomalies in the linear regression model, for example, the role of base-level frequencies of antecedent and outcome in predicting the likelihood of a causal inference, factors that intuitively should not affect the causal status of the antecedent.An even more critical problem, however, for such models of induction purely from an empirical database is the she er computational weight of the task. The four frequencies in the Schustack and Sternberg model pertain to a single potential cause and outcome. Once the causal field is opened to a host of causal candidates (as it is in natural settings), the computational 17 KUHNETAL. burden quickly becomes enormous. Some means of narrowing the causal field to a set of manageable factors is needed.Different approaches have been taken to accomplishing this objective, but they have in common restriction of the set of potential causes to the â€Å"set of events considered relevant by the attributor† (Cheng & Novick, 1990, p. 562). In other words, theoretical expectation on the part of the subject, arising from a preexisting knowledge base, is invoked as a factor in the attribution of causality. Cheng and Novick (1990, 1992) propose that, within this focal set, inferences of causality are based on estimated differences in the probabilities of the effect in the presence versus the absence of the potential cause.Hilton and Slugoski (1986) specify â€Å"abnormal conditions†-those absent in a comparison condition-as the ones likely to be attributed as causes. Both models invoke the distinction emphasized by Mackie (1974) and others (Einhorn & Hogarth, 1986) between causes and enabling conditions. In Cheng and Novick's (1992) model, factors yielding substantial differences across instances will be attributed as causes, whereas factors that are constant across instances will be either regarded as enabling conditions, if they are perceived as relevant, or dismissed as causally irrelevant (and hence excluded from the focal set).Note that the latter distinction rests entirely on the subject's theoretical belief. Covariation within a focal set of instances may well provide the basis for a judgment of causality, but, when this covariation is absent, theoretical belief offers the only basis for judging whether constant factors are causally relevant (as enabling conditions) or n oncausal. Studies in the adult causal inference literature have tended to focus only on inferences of causality, treating inferences of noncausality almost as noninferences.They have not addressed the converse of the covariation principle-evidence of noncovariation over a set of instances as a basis for an inference of noncausality-or in general examined how empirical evidence might play a role in inferences of noncausality. As discussed in the next section, we see noncausal inference as occupying a prominent place in inductive inference, scientific reasoning, and knowledge acquisition, and these inferences are a central object of attention in the present work.We also pay a good deal of attention to another problem that Cheng and Novick (1992) acknowledge is not addressed by their model-inferences of causality based on spurious covariation of a noncausal factor with an outcome. The fact that we examine inductive inference over a period of time as a database of instances accumulates enables us to observe how a subject may gradually overcome the temptation of this invalid inference strategy as well as more generally how the subject coordinates accumulating new evidence with theoretical expectation.Most studies of causal inference have confined subjects to the presentation of a single set of instances 18 STRATEGIES KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUISITION on a single occasion (with data analysis typically confined to the group level). In contrast, we ask subjects to seek out the evidence that they believe adequate to support their causal and noncausal inferences, and we follow them individually in their efforts to interpret this evidence and integrate it with existing knowledge.We turn now to an examination of the inference strategies that individuals might employ as they engage in this task. AND NONCAUSAL CAUSAL STRATEGIES INDUCTIVE OF INFERENCE Causal Inference(Inclusion) On what evidence might someone base the inference that antecedent a has a causal influence on outcome o? I n the framework adopted here, we assume a multivariable context, and we assume that the individual is able to select instances to attend to. The question facing the individual is whether a particular factor a makes a difference to the outcome.For simplicity of exposition, we consider the case in which the identified factors-a, b, c, d, and e-are dichotomous (two-level) variables. (Certain differences arise if the two levels of these variables are treated as presence and absence, but, again for simplicity of exposition, they need not be taken into consideration here, and the two levels of each variable will be designated by the subscripts 1 and 2. ) A further assumption that we make is that selection of instances is at least partially theory motivated.In other words, the individual's prior beliefs about the causal and noncausal status of the identified factors influence the selection of instances to attend to. This selectivity takes a variety of forms that need not be identified in d etail at this point; some examples are the tendencies to select instances believed to produce the most positive level of an outcome (a success rather than an explanation orientation) and to fail to investigate factors that are believed noncausal.A minimal (but, as we shall document, frequent) basis for the inference that an antecedent a and an outcome o are causally related-an inference to which we refer henceforth as the inclusionof a-is their co-occurrence within a multivariable context: al blcdl el — ol. (1) We refer to such an inference as a co-occurrence false inclusion inference (because a and o merely co-occur on one occasion). Such inferences are based on only a single instance and are of course invalid since the cooccurrence does not establish that a played a causal role in producing o. 19KUHNETAL. In the case in which an individual selects at least two instances for examination, an informative second instance would be (2a) a2b c1d1el – 02. Such an instance, w ith the outcome shown, allows the valid inclusion inference that a is causally implicated in o. This inference, based on two instances, is the product of a controlled comparison. In most natural settings, however, people do not have the luxury of selecting for observation exactly those instances that would be most informative with respect to the inferences they al